Confronting the constraints of morphological taxonomy in the Botryosphaeriales

Identification of Lasiodiplodia species inciting stem rot of dragon fruit in India through polyphasic approach

Lasiodiplodia species commonly thrive as endophytes, saprobes, and plant pathogens in tropical and subtropical regions. Association of Lasiodiplodia species causing stem rot in dragon fruit in the coastal belt of Odisha, eastern India, has been illustrated here. The stem rot disease was characterized by yellowing of the stem, followed by softening of the stem tissues with fungal fructifications of the pathogen in the affected tissues. On the basis of macro- and micromorphological characteristics, the four fungal isolates recovered from diseased stems were identified initially as Lasiodiplodia species. By comparing DNA sequences within the NCBI GenBank database as well as performing a multigene phylogenetic analysis involving the internal transcribed spacer region (ITS-rDNA), β-tubulin (β-tub), and elongation factor-alpha (EF1-α) genes, the identity of Lasiodiplodia isolates was determined. The isolate CHES-21-DFCA was identified as Lasiodiplodia iraniensis (syn: L. iranensis) and the remaining three isolates, namely CHES-22-DFCA-1, CHES-22-DFCA-2, and CHES-22-DFCA-3, as L. theobromae. Although pathogenicity studies confirmed both L. iraniensis and L. theobromae were responsible for stem rot in dragon fruit, L. iraniensis was more virulent than L. theobromae. This study established the association of Lasiodiplodia species with stem rot in dragon fruit using a polyphasic approach. Further investigations are required, particularly related to on host-pathogen-weather interaction and spatiotemporal distribution across the major dragon fruit-growing areas of the country to formulate prospective disease management strategies. This is the first report on these two species of Lasiodiplodia inflicting stem rot in Hylocereus species in India.

Morphology and molecular analyses reveal three new species of Botryosphaeriales isolated from diseased plant branches in China

The Botryosphaeriales represents an ecologically diverse group of fungi, comprising endophytes, saprobes, and plant pathogens. In this study, taxonomic analyses were conducted based on morphological characteristics and phylogenetic analyses of multi-gene sequence data from four loci (ITS, LSU, tef1-α, and tub2). Thirteen isolates obtained from Beijing and Yunnan Province were identified as seven species of Botryosphaeriales, including Aplosporellajaveedii, Dothiorellaalpina, Phaeobotryonaplosporum and Ph.rhois, and three previously undescribed species, namely Aplosporellayanqingensis, Dothiorellabaihuashanensis, and Phaeobotryonplatycladi. Additionally, the new records of Dothiorellaalpina from the host species Populusszechuanica, Phaeobotryonaplosporum from Juglansmandshurica, and Phaeobotryonrhois from Populusalbavar.pyramidalis are included.

Re-Evaluating Botryosphaeriales: Ancestral State Reconstructions of Selected Characters and Evolution of Nutritional Modes

Botryosphaeriales (Dothideomycetes, Ascomycota) occur in a wide range of habitats as endophytes, saprobes, and pathogens. The order Botryosphaeriales has not been subjected to evaluation since 2019 by Phillips and co-authors using phylogenetic and evolutionary analyses. Subsequently, many studies introduced novel taxa into the order and revised several families separately. In addition, no ancestral character studies have been conducted for this order. Therefore, in this study, we re-evaluated the character evolution and taxonomic placements of Botryosphaeriales species based on ancestral character evolution, divergence time estimation, and phylogenetic relationships, including all the novel taxa that have been introduced so far. Maximum likelihood, maximum parsimony, and Bayesian inference analyses were conducted on a combined LSU and ITS sequence alignment. Ancestral state reconstruction was carried out for conidial colour, septation, and nutritional mode. Divergence times estimates revealed that Botryosphaeriales originated around 109 Mya in the early epoch of the Cretaceous period. All six families in Botryosphaeriales evolved in the late epoch of the Cretaceous period (66-100 Mya), during which Angiosperms also appeared, rapidly diversified and became dominant on land. Families of Botryosphaeriales diversified during the Paleogene and Neogene periods in the Cenozoic era. The order comprises the families Aplosporellaceae, Botryosphaeriaceae, Melanopsaceae, Phyllostictaceae, Planistromellaceae and Saccharataceae. Furthermore, current study assessed two hypotheses; the first one being "All Botryosphaeriales species originated as endophytes and then switched into saprobes when their hosts died or into pathogens when their hosts were under stress"; the second hypothesis states that "There is a link between the conidial colour and nutritional mode in botryosphaerialean taxa". Ancestral state reconstruction and nutritional mode analyses revealed a pathogenic/saprobic nutritional mode as the ancestral character. However, we could not provide strong evidence for the first hypothesis mainly due to the significantly low number of studies reporting the endophytic botryosphaerialean taxa. Results also showed that hyaline and aseptate conidia were ancestral characters in Botryosphaeriales and supported the relationship between conidial pigmentation and the pathogenicity of Botryosphaeriales species.

Pest categorisation of Lasiodiplodia pseudotheobromae

The EFSA Plant Health Panel performed a pest categorisation of Lasiodiplodia pseudotheobromae, a clearly defined fungus of the family Botryosphaeriaceae, which was first described in 2008 as a cryptic species within the L. theobromae complex. The pathogen affects a wide range of woody perennial crops and ornamental plants causing root rot, damping-off, leaf spots, twig blight, cankers, stem-end rot, gummosis, branch dieback and pre- and post-harvest fruit rots. Lasiodiplodia pseudotheobromae is present in Africa, Asia, North and South America and Oceania and has also been reported from Spain with a restricted distribution. However, there is uncertainty on the status of the pathogen worldwide and in the EU because in the past, when molecular tools (particularly multigene phylogenetic analysis) were not available, the pathogen might have been misidentified as L. theobromae. Lasiodiplodia pseudotheobromae is not included in Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2019/2072 and there are no interceptions in the EU. Because of the very wide host range of the pathogen, this pest categorisation focused on those hosts for which there is robust evidence that the pathogen was formally identified by a combination of morphology, pathogenicity and multilocus sequence analysis. Plants for planting, including seeds, fresh fruits and bark and wood of host plants as well as soil and other plant-growing media are the main pathways for the further entry of the pathogen into the EU. Host availability and climate suitability factors occurring in parts of the EU are favourable for the further establishment of the pathogen. In the area of its present distribution, including Spain, the pathogen has a direct impact on cultivated hosts. multilocus measures are available to prevent the further introduction and spread of the pathogen into the EU. Lasiodiplodia pseudotheobromae satisfies the criteria that are within the remit of EFSA to assess for this species to be regarded as potential Union quarantine pest.

First report of Botryosphaeria dothidea causing leaf spot of Camellia oleifera in China

Camellia oleifera Abel., a small evergreen tree or shrub, is mainly distributed in central and southern China with a larger scale of 4.5 × 106 hectares (Zhu 2020). In May 2021, severe leaf spots were observed in plantation located in Shuangfeng County (27°41'36" N, 111°56'60" E), Hunan Province, China. More than 60 C. oleifera plants were surveyed with over 80% disease incidence. The symptoms on leaves were initially small brown lesions from leaf margins or tips, developing to suborbicular or irregular-shaped dark brown lesions, leading to leaves withered. A total of 60 symptomatic samples were randomly collected. Lesion margins were surface sterilized in 2% sodium hypochlorite for 1 min, rinsed with sterile distilled water for three times, dried, placed on potato dextrose agar (PDA), and incubated at 25°C in the dark for 3 days. Hyphal sections from colony edges were transferred to new PDA plates. Three isolates of Botryosphaeria dothidea were obtained. Colonies of B. dothidea were initially white gradually turning dark-gray with dense aerial mycelium after 6 days. To induce sporulation, colonies of YCB17 were transferred to synthetic nutrient-poor agar (SNA) with sterilized leaves of C. oleifera. Cultures were initially incubated at 25°C in the dark for 3 days, then alternatively exposed to 12-hours near-UV light and 12-hours white light (CHU et al. 2021). After 5 days, conidia formed on leaves were examined microscopically. The conidia were unicellular, aseptate, hyaline, and fusoid, 20.9-25.5×4.7-6.4 µm (n = 50). Morphological characteristics of the isolates matched the description of B. dothidea (Slippers et al. 2014). DNA sequence was amplified using primer pairs ITS1/ITS4 (Tang et al. 2022), EF1-728F/986R (Slippers et al. 2004), and βt2a/2b (Glass & Donaldson. 1995) respectively. The sequences of three isolates (YCB2, YCB3, YCB17) were deposited in GenBank with accession numbers ON714603, MZ613350, MZ613349 (ITS), OM328342, OM328343, OM328344 (TEF-1α), and OM328345, OM328346, OM328347 (TUB2). A blast search of sequences showed the ITS, TEF-1α, and TUB2 sequences had >99% identity with homologue sequences from B. dothidea isolates IRNHM-KZ49 (MG198191.1), CAP288 (EF638732.1) and Mu1 (MK423987.1), respectively. For pathogenicity testing, healthy leaves of 2-year-old C. oleifera plants in the greenhouse were spray-inoculated with conidial suspension (2×106 conidia/mL) from YCB17. Ten surface-sterilized and wounded leaves per plant were sprayed with 30 µL suspension. The other ten wounded leaves sprayed with sterile distilled water served as control. All plants were kept in the greenhouse with temperature at 26 ± 2°C and 50% relative humidity. After 12 days, initial symptoms were observed on more than 80% leaves inoculated with conidial suspension, whereas no symptoms were observed on the control leaves. The test was repeated three times with similar results. It was found that B. dothidea could cause leaf spot of C. oleifera. The infected leaves showed same symptom as samples. Re-isolated fungi from infected leaves were morphologically identical to B. dothidea. Botryosphaeria dothidea has been reported causing leaf spot in a wide range of hosts, but has not previously been reported causing disease on C. oleifera. To our knowledge, this is the first report of B. dothidea causing leaf spot of Camellia oleifera in China. The information on identification of this fungus may be helpful to the control and prevention of the disease. References: 1. Chu Rui-Tian, et al. 2021. Mycosystema 40(3): 473. 2. Glass, N. L., and Donaldson, G. C. 1995. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61: 1323. 3. Slippers, B., et al. 2004. Mycologia 96:83. 4. Slippers, B., et al. 2014. Persoonia 33:155. 5. Tang, Y., et al. 2022. Plant Dis. 106: 765. 6. Zhu P.X. People's Daily. 2020.11.09. http://gz.people.com.cn/n2/2020/1119/c194844-34425098.html. *Indicates the corresponding author. Kaifa Guo, E-mail: andygkf@126.com.

Unveiling the Secretome of the Fungal Plant Pathogen Neofusicoccum parvum Induced by In Vitro Host Mimicry

Neofusicoccum parvum is a fungal plant pathogen of a wide range of hosts but knowledge about the virulence factors of N. parvum and host-pathogen interactions is rather limited. The molecules involved in the interaction between N. parvum and Eucalyptus are mostly unknown, so we used a multi-omics approach to understand pathogen-host interactions. We present the first comprehensive characterization of the in vitro secretome of N. parvum and a prediction of protein-protein interactions using a dry-lab non-targeted interactomics strategy. We used LC-MS to identify N. parvum protein profiles, resulting in the identification of over 400 proteins, from which 117 had a different abundance in the presence of the Eucalyptus stem. Most of the more abundant proteins under host mimicry are involved in plant cell wall degradation (targeting pectin and hemicellulose) consistent with pathogen growth on a plant host. Other proteins identified are involved in adhesion to host tissues, penetration, pathogenesis, or reactive oxygen species generation, involving ribonuclease/ribotoxin domains, putative ricin B lectins, and necrosis elicitors. The overexpression of chitosan synthesis proteins during interaction with the Eucalyptus stem reinforces the hypothesis of an infection strategy involving pathogen masking to avoid host defenses. Neofusicoccum parvum has the molecular apparatus to colonize the host but also actively feed on its living cells and induce necrosis suggesting that this species has a hemibiotrophic lifestyle.

First Report of Botryosphaeria dothidea Causing Leaf Blight on Cornus officinalis in Jiangsu Province, China

Cornus officinalis Sieb. et Zucc., belonging to the family Cornaceae, is often used as an ornamental plant and is widely distributed in Shandong, Jiangsu, and Zhejiang provinces and other places in China. Since 2020, a new disease with high incidence has been found in Xuanwu Lake Park (32°04'34.53″N 118°48'42.06″E) in Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China. The symptoms began as small brown lesions formed along the leaf tips, which gradually expanded and became dark brown with a light brown border. A survey of C. officinalis trees in Xuanwu Lake Park showed that approximately 90% of thirty trees were infected, which decreased the ornamental value of C. officinalis. Pieces of leaf tissue (3 to 4 mm²) from the lesion margins were surface sterilized with 75% ethanol for 30 s and 1% NaClO for 90 s. Subsequently, the tissues were rinsed with sterile H2O, placed on potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium and incubated at 25℃ for 5 days. The same fungus was isolated in 90% of the tissues. Pure cultures were obtained by monosporic isolation. A representative isolate, SZY 2-2, was used for morphological and molecular characterization. The colonies were initially white, gradually turning gray green to black with copious gray aerial mycelium after 1 week in culture. Conidia were one-celled, hyaline, smooth, and fusoid to ellipsoid. Conidia measurements were 23.6±1.9×7.2±0.56 μm (n = 50). The morphology of SZY 2-2 matched the description of Botryosphaeria dothidea (Slippers et al. 2004). To verify species identity, the partial sequences of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region, translation elongation factor 1 alpha (EF1-a) gene, and beta-tubulin gene (TUB), were amplified from isolate SZY 2-2 with primers ITS1/ITS4 (White et al. 1990), EF1-728F/EF1-986R (Carbone and Koho 1999), and βt2a/βt2b (Glass and Donaldson 1995), respectively. The sequences were deposited in GenBank (ON171471 for ITS, ON185540 for EF1-a, and ON185541 for TUB). A BLAST search of GenBank showed that ITS, EF1-a and TUB sequences of SZY 2-2 were similar to those of B. dothidea MN633360 (identity=517/517 bp; 100%), MK783294 (identity=299/299 bp; 100%), and KF005081 (identity=461/461 bp; 100%), respectively. The morphological and molecular results identified the isolate as B. dothidea (Zhai et al. 2014). To fulfill Koch's postulates, a pathogenicity test was conducted using three C. officinalis plants. Five leaves from each tree were wounded and inoculated with mycelial plugs (about 4 mm in diameter) of B. dothidea from a 5-day-old culture grown on PDA, and inoculation with sterile PDA plugs on different leaves of the same tree served as negative controls. The leaves were enclosed in plastic bag along with the branches with a wet cotton ball inside. Sterile H2O2 was sprayed into the plastic bags to keep moisture conditions.Five days later, all inoculated points showed lesions similar to those previously observed in the field, whereas controls were asymptomatic. The pathogen was successfully reisolated from the inoculated symptomatic parts on PDA and had morphology as characterized before, thus fulfilling Koch's postulates. B. dothidea is known as a ubiquitous fungus and operates as both an endophyte and an opportunistic pathogen of trees (Slippers and Wingfield 2007, Zhao et al 2020). Stress factors that predispose trees to disease expression by B. dothidea include drought, defoliation (Theodore et al. 1997), competition, and physical damage (Slippers and Wingfield 2007). This is consistent with the occurrence of the disease in September and association of B. dothidea with the presence of wounds. More investigation is needed to determine the relationship between possible endophytic growth of B. dothidea on C. officinalis and the leaf blight found in Jiangsu Province.

Lasiodiplodia theobromae as a causal pathogen of leaf blight, stem canker, and pod rot of Theobroma cacao in Malaysia

Symptoms of leaf blight, stem canker, and pod rot were observed on T. cacao during a series of samplings conducted in several states of Malaysia from September 2018 to March 2019. The identity of the pathogen that was responsible for the diseases was determined using morphological characteristics, DNA sequences, and phylogenetic analyses of multiple genes, namely, internal transcribed spacer (ITS), elongation translation factor 1-alpha (tef1-α), β-tubulin (tub2), and RNA polymerase subunit II (rpb2). A total of 57 isolates recovered from diseased leaves of T. cacao (13 isolates), stems (20 isolates), and pods (24 isolates) showed morphological features that resembled Lasiodiplodia sp. The identity of the isolates was further determined up to the species level by comparing DNA sequences and phylogenetic analyses of multiple genes. The phylogenetic analysis of the combined dataset of ITS, tef1-α, tub2, and rpb2 elucidated that all of the isolates obtained were Lasiodiplodia theobromae as supported by 97% bootstrap value. The results of pathogenicity tests revealed L. theobromae as the causal pathogen of leaf blight, stem canker, and pod rot of T. cacao.

Diversity of Botryosphaeriaceae and Diaporthe Species Associated with Postharvest Apple Fruit Decay in Serbia

Family Botryosphaeriaceae and the genus Diaporthe (family Diaporthaceae) represent diverse groups of plant pathogens, which include causal agents of leaf spot, shoot blight, branch and stem cankers, dieback, and pre- and postharvest apple fruit decay. Apple fruit with symptoms of light to dark brown decay were collected during and after harvest from 2016 to 2018. Thirty selected isolates, on which pathogenicity was confirmed, were identified and characterized based on multilocus phylogeny and morphology. Five species from the family Botryosphaeriaceae and two from the genus Diaporthe (fam. Diaporthaceae) were discovered. The most commonly isolated was Diplodia seriata followed by Botryosphaeria dothidea. In this work, Diaporthe rudis is described as a new postharvest pathogen of apple fruit. Diplodia bulgarica, Diplodia sapinea, Neofusicoccum yunnanense, and Diaporthe eres are initially described as postharvest apple and D. sapinea as postharvest quince and medlar fruit pathogens in Serbia. Because species of the family Botryosphaeriaceae and the genus Diaporthe are known to cause other diseases on their hosts, have an endophytic nature, and have a wide host range, findings from this study imply that they may become a new challenge for successful fruit production.

Morphomolecular and cultural characteristics and host range of Lasiodiplodia theobromae causing stem canker disease in dragon fruit

Dragon fruit (Hylocereus polyrhizus) is an economically promising fruit in Bangladesh. The cultivation of dragon fruit has increased fourfold within a decade due to its popularity. Recently, a new disease known as stem canker was reported in some plantations of dragon fruit in Bangladesh, which forced some farmers to abandon their cultivation. This study aimed to explore the morphological, molecular, and cultural characteristics as well as host range of the causal agent associated with this destructive disease. Morphologically similar eight fungal isolates were recovered from eight canker symptomatic dragon fruit stems. Among them, two isolates (namely BU-DLa 01 and BU-DLa 02) were used for a detailed study. Morphological parameters and phylogeny of sequence data of internal transcribed spacer (ITS1, 5.8S rRNA, and ITS2), β-tubulin, and translation elongation factor 1-α identified the isolates as Lasiodiplodia theobromae. The cultural features were studied hinged on the growth of the two isolates on various media, temperature, and pH. Though the mycelial growth of the fungi was supported by all the media tested, potato dextrose agar was the most suitable one for both isolates. The fungi thrived well at a temperature of 25-35°C and 5.5-6.5 pH. Inoculation trials of dragon fruit stem ascertained Koch's postulate. In host range test, the isolates were found pathogenic toward mango, guava, banana, and the fruits of dragon fruit. These data will contribute not only to understanding the biology of L. theobromae as a newly recognized pathogen of H. polyrhizus but also will help in designing a proper management package against this pathogen.

Toward a Natural Classification of Botryosphaeriaceae: A Study of the Type Specimens of Botryosphaeria sensu lato

The genus Botryosphaeria includes more than 200 epithets, but only the type species, Botryosphaeria dothidea and a dozen or more other species have been identified based on DNA sequence data. The taxonomic status of the other species remains unconfirmed because they lack either morphological information or DNA sequence data. In this study, types or authentic specimens of 16 "Botryosphaeria" species are reassessed to clarify their identity and phylogenetic position. nuDNA sequences of four regions, ITS, LSU, tef1-α and tub2, are analyzed and considered in combination with morphological characteristics. Based on the multigene phylogeny and morphological characters, Botryosphaeria cruenta and Botryosphaeria hamamelidis are transferred to Neofusicoccum. The generic status of Botryosphaeria aterrima and Botryosphaeria mirabile is confirmed in Botryosphaeria. Botryosphaeria berengeriana var. weigeliae and B. berengeriana var. acerina are treated synonyms of B. dothidea. Botryosphaeria mucosa is transferred to Neodeightonia as Neodeightonia mucosa, and Botryosphaeria ferruginea to Nothophoma as Nothophoma ferruginea. Botryosphaeria foliicola is reduced to synonymy with Phyllachorella micheliae. Botryosphaeria abuensis, Botryosphaeria aesculi, Botryosphaeria dasylirii, and Botryosphaeria wisteriae are tentatively kept in Botryosphaeria sensu stricto until further phylogenetic analysis is carried out on verified specimens. The ordinal status of Botryosphaeria apocyni, Botryosphaeria gaubae, and Botryosphaeria smilacinina cannot be determined, and tentatively accommodate these species in Dothideomycetes incertae sedis. The study demonstrates the significance of a polyphasic approach in characterizing type specimens, including the importance of using of DNA sequence data.

Association of Lasiodiplodia theobromae with die-back and decline of nutmeg as revealed through phenotypic, pathogenicity and phylogenetic analyses

Lasiodiplodia theobromae is a cosmopolitan pathogen geographically widespread in tropics and subtropics inciting economically important diseases on diverse plant genera. In the present study, Lasiodiplodia theobromae associated with nutmeg exhibiting die-back and declining symptoms was identified and characterized by adopting a polyphasic approach. The disease was characterized with the symptoms including general decline, water-soaking patches on branches and tree trunk, die-back of branches, necrotic lesions beneath water-soaked lesions and necrosis of vascular tissues. The isolates representing diverse nutmeg growing tracts were initially identified as Lasiodiplodia species based on macro- and micro-morphological characteristics. Subsequent analyses of internal transcribed spacer (ITS), partial elongation factor 1-alpha (EF1-α) and β-tubulin (β-tub) genes identified the pathogen as Lasiodiplodia theobromae. Pathogenicity studies were proved on nutmeg twigs and branches (in vitro) as well as on saplings (in vivo). The present investigation enunciated the association of Lasiodiplodia theobromae with die-back and decline of nutmeg employing a polyphasic approach which warrants further investigations on its spatio-temporal distribution, pathogen diversity, weather-host-pathogen interaction and formulating prospective disease management strategies.

Insights into the Bioprospecting of the Endophytic Fungi of the Medicinal Plant Palicourea rigida Kunth (Rubiaceae): Detailed Biological Activities

A multitude of plants from the Brazilian savanna are known for their medicinal properties. Many plants contain endophytic fungi, which lead to the production of bioactive compounds by both the fungi and their hosts. This study investigated the bioprospecting of endophytic fungi recovered from the leaves of Palicourea rigida, a native medicinal plant of the Brazilian savanna. Four fungal taxa (Colletotrichum sp. SXS649, Pestalotiopsis sp. SXS650, the order Botryosphaeriales SXS651, and Diaporthe sp. SXS652) were recovered. The phenolic, flavonoid, extracellular degrading enzymes (amylase, cellulase, protease, and tannase) and antioxidant activity of these taxa were determined. Evaluation of the antimicrobial activity showed that the Botryosphaeriales SXS651 extract displays a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 23.20 mg mL-1 against Staphylococcus epidermidis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and the Diaporthe sp. SXS652 extract exhibited an MIC of 27.00 mg mL-1 against Escherichia coli. The Colletotrichum sp. SXS649 isolate inhibited tumors in potato discs by 69% at a concentration of 9.70 mg mL-1. All isolates had potential bioremediation criteria against soil contaminated with soybean oil, as proved by a high percentage of germination of Lactuca sativa and a reduction in phytotoxicity. Furthermore, the taxa under investigation demonstrated antagonistic action to phytopathogenic fungi, namely, Aspergillus niger, Inonotus rickii, Pestalotiopsis mangiferae, and Coniophora puteana, with an inhibition range between 34.2% and 76.9%. The preliminary toxicity assessment showed that all isolates possessed an LC50 of less than 100 mg mL-1 to the microcrustacean Artemia salina. These results indicate that the endophytic fungi of the Brazilian savanna are promising candidates for biotechnological and industrial applications and, in agricultural applications, for the biological control of phytopathogenic fungi.

Botryosphaeriaceae on Syzygium cordatum across a latitudinal gradient in South Africa

The Botryosphaeriaceae is a family of endophytic fungi, many of which are latent pathogens of woody plants. Although extensively sampled in some parts of the world, little is known regarding their occurrence across different environmental conditions. This study considered the presence of the Botryosphaeriaceae on Syzygium cordatum trees across a latitudinal gradient. We examined the relative importance of different environmental factors on the presence of the Botryosphaeriaceae across this latitudinal gradient. Specifically, Botryosphaeriaceae community composition and species richness were analysed. The optimal growth temperature of the most common Botryosphaeriaceae isolates and its relation to isolate origin was also tested in culture. We identified 14 Botryosphaeriaceae species including seven each of Lasiodiplodia and Neofusicoccum species. The maximum historical temperature emerged as the environmental factor that best predicted the presence of Botryosphaeriaceae species in S. cordatum trees, specifically influencing Botryosphaeriaceae community composition. For all the Botryosphaeriaceae species studied in vitro, temperature strongly influenced mycelial growth and they all had an optimal growth temperature of 25 °C. Contrary to our hypothesis, the optimal growth temperature was not related to isolate origin. These results contribute to understanding the presence of the Botryosphaeriaceae in trees and our ability to detect these latent pathogens.

Taxonomical Study of Noteworthy Species of Botryosphaeria in Japan

The reexamination of the fungal genus Botryosphaeria on 12 plant species of 10 families was carried out based on molecular phylogenetic analyses using the regions of translation elongation factor 1-α, β-tubulin, DNA-directed RNA polymerase II subunit, and internal transcribed spacer region of rDNA and morphological characteristics. Japanese isolates were divided into five clades and include Botryosphaeria dothidea, B. qingyuanensis, B. sinensis, and Botryosphaeria spp. Two species, B. qingyuanensis and B. sinensis have been newly added to the Japanese mycoflora, but their host plants are not specified. Botryosphaeria tenuispora isolated from Leucothoe fontanesiana and insect galls on fruits of Aucuba japonica has been proposed as a new species.

What Do We Know about Botryosphaeriaceae? An Overview of a Worldwide Cured Dataset

Botryosphaeriaceae-related diseases occur worldwide in a wide variety of plant hosts. The number of studies targeting the distribution, diversity, ecology, and pathogenicity of Botryosphaeriaceae species are consistently increasing. However, with the lack of consistency in species delimitation, the name of hosts, and the locations of studies, it is almost impossible to quantify the presence of these species worldwide, or the number of different host–fungus interactions that occur. In this review, we collected and organized Botryosphaeriaceae occurrences in a single cured dataset, allowing us to obtain for the first time a complete perspective on species’ global diversity, dispersion, host association, ecological niches, pathogenicity, communication efficiency of new occurrences, and new host–fungus associations. This dataset is freely available through an interactive and online application. The current release (version 1.0) contains 14,405 cured isolates and 2989 literature references of 12,121 different host–fungus interactions with 1692 different plant species from 149 countries.

Variation in Botryosphaeriaceae from Eucalyptus plantations in YunNan Province in southwestern China across a climatic gradient

The Botryosphaeriaceae accommodates many important pathogens of woody plants, including Eucalyptus. Recently, Botryosphaeriaceae were isolated from diseased plant parts from surveys of Eucalyptus plantations in the YunNan Province, China. The aims of this study were to identify these Botryosphaeriaceae isolates and to evaluate their pathogenicity to Eucalyptus. A total of 166 isolates of Botryosphaeriaceae were obtained from six regions in the YunNan Province, of which 76 were from Eucalyptus urophylla × E. grandis hybrids, 49 from E. globulus trees, and 41 isolates were from other unknown Eucalyptus species or hybrids. Isolates were identified by comparing DNA sequences of the internal transcribed spacer ribosomal RNA locus (ITS), partial translation elongation factor 1-alpha (tef1), β-tubulin 2 (tub2) and DNA-directed RNA polymerase II subunit (rpb2) genes, and combined with their morphological characteristics. Eleven species were identified, including Botryosphaeria fusispora, B. wangensis, Lasiodiplodia pseudotheobromae, Neofusicoccum kwambonambiense, N. parvum, and six novel species described as B. puerensis, N. dianense, N. magniconidium, N. ningerense, N. parviconidium and N. yunnanense. The dominant species across the regions were N. yunnanense, N. parvum and B. wangensis, representing 31.3, 25.3 and 19.9% of the total isolates, respectively. Species diversity and composition changed across the different climatic zones, despite their relatively close geographic proximity and the fact that some of the species have a global distribution. All the Botryosphaeriaceae species were pathogenic to one-year-old plants of an E. urophylla × E. grandis clone and E. globulus seed-derived plants, but showed significant inter- and intra-species variation in aggressiveness amongst isolates. The study provides a foundation for monitoring and management of Botryosphaeriaceae through selection and breeding of Eucalyptus in the YunNan Province of southwestern China.

First Report of Botryosphaeria dothidea Causing Leaf Spot and Wilt on Celtis sinensis in China

Celtis sinensis Pers. (Chinese hackberry), belonging to the family Ulmaceae, is widely used as a street tree or landscape plant because of its longevity and aesthetic growth habit. Additionally, C. sinensis is of economic importance due to its medicinal properties. Roots and bark of the plant can be used in natural medicine for the treatment of lumbago, measles, tumor, etc (Zhang et al. 2016). In July 2019, symptoms of leaf spot were observed on C. sinensis in Yuanshan national forest park of Zibo, Shandong Province, China (36.48°N, 117.84°E). We surveyed more than 500 square meters of forest area, and more than 80% of the acreage was affected with the leafspot disease. Symptoms on infected leaves appeared as regular round or oval spots, colored in yellow with brown borders, which coalesced into larger spots as the disease progressed. To investigate the cause, 20 leaves of infected tissues were cut into ~2 mm pieces and surface disinfected with 75% ethanol for 30 s, rinsed three times with sterile deionized water. These were air dried and placed on potato dextrose agar (PDA) and incubated at 25℃ for 5 to 7 days. A minimum of 15 isolates were obtained and cultures were initially white, gradually becoming gray green to dark after 1 week, producing copious amounts of gray aerial mycelium. Three representative single isolates were used for molecular identification, which were verified based on the amplification of DNA sequences of internal transcribed spacer region, translation elongation factor 1 alpha and beta-tubulin genes, using the primers ITS1/ITS4 (White et al. 1990), EF1-728F/EF1-986R (Carbone and Kohn 1999), and BT-2a/BT-2b (Glass and Donaldson 1995), respectively. The sequenced genes (GenBank accession no. MT367874, MT385087, MT374083) exhibited 99.63% (Identity=545/547), 99.00% (Identity=297/300), and 100.00% (Identity=451/451) homology with the corresponding genes of type specimen of Botryosphaeria dothidea strain CBS110302 (GenBank accession no. AY259092, AY573218, EU673106), respectively. Morphological and molecular results showed that the isolates were B. dothidea (Slippers et al. 2014; Zhai et al. 2014). Pathogenicity was confirmed using five living, healthy C. sinensis plants with three leaves were wound inoculated with mycelial plugs (about 4 mm in diameter) of B. dothidea from a 7-day-old culture grown on PDA, while inoculated with sterile PDA plugs on the same leaves were served as negative controls. All the plants were covered by plastic sheeting and keep high relative humidity by adding water in time. Seven days later, all inoculated leaves appeared as round dark brown spots, which were larger than observed in the field. The pathogenicity test was repeated three times. No symptoms were observed on negative controls. Fungi re-isolated from inoculated leaves were confirmed as B. dothidea on the basis morphology and molecular characterization as described above. To our knowledge, this is the first report on the presence of B. dothidea affecting C. sinensis plants in China. This discovery is important to ensure the sustainable production of C. sinensis, an important landscaping and medicinal tree.

Stem Canker on Cyclocarya paliurus Is Caused by Botryosphaeria dothidea

Cyclocarya paliurus, an important endangered plant in China, has considerable medicinal, timber, and horticultural value. However, little is known about diseases that affect its health. In recent years, stem canker diseases on C. paliurus have been observed frequently in newly established nurseries in Jiangsu Province, China. Symptomatic trees showed elliptical, sunken lesions on the bark, with internal discoloration, leading to enlarging cankers with delineated margins. Pathogenicity tests with fungi isolated from symptomatic samples reproduced typical canker symptoms on both detached branches and potted plants of C. paliurus. Moreover, conidia from pycnidia of isolate ZB-23 could also cause stem canker on C. paliurus. Through combined morphological observation and DNA sequences of ITS region, β-tubulin, and translation elongation factor 1-α genes, the pathogen was identified as Botryosphaeria dothidea. Multigene maximum likelihood and maximum parsimony phylogenetic analyses further supported the identification of the pathogen. To our knowledge, this is the first report of B. dothidea causing stem canker on C. paliurus in China.

Phylogenetic Characterization of Botryosphaeria Strains Associated with Asphondylia Galls on Species of Lamiaceae

In the last decade, Botryosphaeria dothidea has been steadily reported as an associate of gall midges (Diptera, Cecidomyiidae) in a variety of host plants and ecological settings. This cosmopolitan fungus is well-known for its ability to colonize many plant species, as both a pathogen and an endophyte. Thus, the shift from this general habit to a lifestyle involving a strict symbiotic relationship with an insect introduces expectancy for possible strain specialization which could reflect separated phylogenetic lineages. Considering the recent taxonomic revision concerning species of Botryosphaeria, we evaluated the phylogenetic relationships among strains recovered from Asphondylia galls collected on several species of Lamiaceae in Poland and in Italy, and all the currently accepted species in this genus. A number of strains previously characterized from gall samples from Australia and South Africa, whose genetic marker sequences are deposited in GenBank, were also included in the analysis. As a result, full identity as B. dothidea is confirmed for our isolates, while strains from the southern hemisphere grouped separately, indicating the existence of genetic variation related to the geographic origin in the association with gall midges.

Phylogeny, Distribution, and Pathogenicity of Lasiodiplodia Species Associated With Cankers and Dieback Symptoms of Persian Lime in Mexico

Persian lime (Citrus latifolia Tan.) is an important and widely cultivated fruit crop in several regions of Mexico. In recent years, severe symptoms of gummosis, stem cankers, and dieback were detected in the Persian lime-producing region in the states of Veracruz and Puebla, Mexico. The aims of this study were to identify the species of Lasiodiplodia associated with these symptoms, determine the distribution of these species, and test their pathogenicity and virulence on Persian lime plants. In 2015, symptomatic samples were collected from 12 commercial Persian lime orchards, and 60 Lasiodiplodia isolates were obtained. Fungal identification of 32 representative isolates was performed using a phylogenetic analysis based on DNA sequence data of the internal transcribed spacer region and part of the translation elongation factor 1-α and β-tubulin genes. Sequence analyses were carried out using the Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian Inference methods. Six Lasiodiplodia species were identified as Lasiodiplodia pseudotheobromae, Lasiodiplodia theobromae, Lasiodiplodia brasiliense, Lasiodiplodia subglobosa, Lasiodiplodia citricola, and Lasiodiplodia iraniensis. All Lasiodiplodia species of this study are reported for the first time in association with Persian lime in Mexico and worldwide. L. pseudotheobromae (46.9% of isolates) was the most frequently isolated species followed by L. theobromae (28.1%) and L. brasiliense (12.5%). Pathogenicity on Persian lime young plants using a mycelial plug inoculation method showed that all identified Lasiodiplodia species were able to cause necrotic lesions and gummosis, but L. subglobosa, L. iraniensis, and L. pseudotheobromae were the most virulent.

Vachellia erioloba dynamics over 38 years in the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park, South Africa

Vachellia erioloba is a keystone tree species in the southern Kalahari. This long-term study over nearly four decades tracks two populations in different landscapes (the interior sandy duneveld versus the clayey Nossob riverbed) of a large conservation area and offers valuable data on this species under natural soil moisture conditions and with limited anthropogenic influences. In 1978, 18 trees were permanently marked in a 1 ha plot in the interior duneveld of the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park (Dankbaar site). In the Nossob riverbed all trees in a 1 ha plot were surveyed in 1979 (Grootkolk site). At both sites, tree height and stem circumference were subsequently measured at irregular intervals until 2016 in order to investigate growth rates and population structure. Of the 18 marked trees at Dankbaar, six died and three showed coppice regrowth following substantial dieback after a fire. A mean height increase of 60 mm/year was recorded and the mean height of the remaining uncoppiced trees was 6.8 m in 2016. Stem diameter growth rate per year varied widely between trees and between years with a mean value of 2.5 mm/year over the 38-year period. Growth rate calculated for three 10-year intervals varied. Using the mean growth rate derived in the current study and stem size of the dead trees, the mean age of the trees when they died was estimated. At the Grootkolk site, the position of the centroid in relation to the midpoint of the diameter class range suggests that this population is gradually becoming a mature to old population with limited recruitment. This was supported by the size class distribution curves. However, no differences between slopes or intercepts of the stem diameter size class distributions were found.Conservation implications: This study was conducted in a large conservation area, that is, a natural ecosystem excluding most of the anthropogenic threats that are present outside of the park. The study illustrated that in the duneveld the population studied was self-sustaining, with recruitment occurring and large individuals presumably dying of old age. Although fire caused a few individuals to coppice, no fire-related deaths were reported. In the Nossob riverbed, surveys started in a stand of predominantly young trees and the size class distribution at that stage already showed a lack of recruitment. This stand is ageing and will likely disappear at this site; however, new young stands are appearing at other sites in the Nossob riverbed. Under the current conditions with negligible anthropogenic influences, it therefore appears that some V. erioloba populations in the park are increasing in size while others are decreasing, but that overall the species will persist. The impact of global climate change on this species is, however, unknown.

Characterization and Pathogenicity of Botryosphaeriaceae Fungi Associated with Declining Urban Stands of Coast Redwood in California

Coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) is among the most widely planted landscape trees in California (CA) but is in decline outside its natural range due to factors including prolonged drought and plant pathogens. We investigated associations of Botryosphaeriaceae fungi with declining coast redwood trees throughout CA. More than 100 samples were collected from 11 coastal and inland locations in CA. Fifty-nine Botryosphaeria-like fungal strains were isolated and 18 were selected for further study. Phylogenetic analysis of ITS and EF-1α sequence data confirmed the presence of Botryosphaeria dothidea, Neofusicoccum australe, N. luteum, N. mediterraneum, and N. parvum. Pathogenicity testing showed that although the Neofusicoccum species vary in virulence, all are more virulent that B. dothidea. N. australe caused the largest lesions, followed by N. luteum, N. parvum, and N. mediterraneum. Of the species recovered, only B. dothidea has been previously confirmed as a pathogen of coast redwood in CA. These results confirm that multiple Botryosphaeriaceae species are associated with branch decline and dieback on coast redwood in CA, which agrees with similar studies on woody agricultural crops. Accurate diagnosis of fungal pathogens of coast redwood is important for the development of disease management strategies and may help improve horticultural practices in maintenance of urban stands.

Pest categorisation of Botryosphaeria kuwatsukai

The Panel on Plant Health performed a pest categorisation of Botryosphaeria kuwatsukai, the causal agent of fruit rot and wart bark on apple and pear, for the EU. The pathogen, which was recently characterised, is a well-defined fungal species affecting mainly Pyrus pyrifolia (Japanese pear), although Pyrus communis (European pear) and apples (Malus domestica) can also be affected. The host status of other plant species reported in the literature, i.e. Cydonia oblonga, Chaenomeles japonica, Malus micromalus, Vitis vinifera and Prunus spp., is unclear. B. kuwatsukai is currently present in Japan, China, Korea, Taiwan and the USA, and uncertainty exists about its presence in other areas, where the disease has been associated with other Botryosphaeria spp. The pathogen is not known to occur in the EU and is listed in Annex IIAI of Directive 2000/29/EC. It could potentially enter the EU on host plants for planting and fruit originated in infested countries. Climatic conditions in the EU are suitable for the establishment and spread of the pathogen, as its epidemiology is similar to that of other Botryosphaeria spp. present in the EU. Pears and apples are widely distributed in the EU. In the infested areas, B. kuwatsukai causes branch dieback and fruit rot resulting in yield/quality losses. Its introduction and spread in the EU could impact pear and apple production, although the magnitude is unknown. Cultural practices and chemical measures may reduce the inoculum sources but cannot eliminate the pathogen. Phytosanitary measures are available to mitigate the risk of introduction and spread of the pathogen in the EU. B. kuwatsukai meets all criteria assessed by EFSA for consideration as a potential Union quarantine pest. As B. kuwatsukai is not known to occur in the EU, this criterion to consider it as a Union regulated non-quarantine pest is not met.

Botryosphaeriaceae from Eucalyptus plantations and adjacent plants in China

The Botryosphaeriaceae is a species-rich family that includes pathogens of a wide variety of plants, including species of Eucalyptus. Recently, during disease surveys in China, diseased samples associated with species of Botryosphaeriaceae were collected from plantation Eucalyptus and other plants, including Cunninghamina lanceolata, Dimocarpus longan, Melastoma sanguineum and Phoenix hanceana, which were growing adjacent to Eucalyptus. In addition, few samples from Araucaria cunninghamii and Cedrus deodara in two gardens were also included in this study. Disease symptoms observed mainly included stem canker, shoot and twig blight. In this study, 105 isolates of Botryosphaeriaceae were collected from six provinces, of which 81 isolates were from Eucalyptus trees. These isolates were identified based on comparisons of the DNA sequences of the internal transcribed spacer regions and intervening 5.8S nrRNA gene (ITS), and partial translation elongation factor 1-alpha (tef1), β-tubulin (tub), DNA-directed RNA polymerase II subunit (rpb2) and calmodulin (cmdA) genes, the nuclear ribosomal large subunit (LSU) and the nuclear ribosomal small subunit (SSU), and combined with their morphological characteristics. Results showed that these isolates represent 12 species of Botryosphaeriaceae, including Botryosphaeria fusispora, Cophinforma atrovirens, Lasiodiplodia brasiliense, L. pseudotheobromae, L. theobromae and Neofusicoccum parvum, and six previously undescribed species of Botryosphaeria and Neofusicoccum, namely B. pseudoramosa sp. nov., B. qingyuanensis sp. nov., B. wangensis sp. nov., N. hongkongense sp. nov., N. microconidium sp. nov. and N. sinoeucalypti sp. nov. Aside from B. wangensis, C. atrovirens and N. hongkongense, the other nine Botryosphaeriaceae species were isolated from Eucalyptus trees in South China. Botryosphaeria fusispora (26 % of the isolates from Eucalyptus) is the dominant species, followed by L. pseudotheobromae (23 % of the isolates from Eucalyptus). In addition to species found on Eucalyptus trees, we also found B. pseudoramosa on M. sanguineum; B. wangensis on C. deodara; C. atrovirens on D. longan; L. theobromae on C. lanceolata, D. longan and P. hanceana; and N. hongkongense on A. cunninghamii. Pathogenicity tests showed that the 12 species of Botryosphaeriaceae are pathogenic to three Eucalyptus clones and that Lasiodiplodia species are the most aggressive. The results of our study suggest that many more species of the Botryosphaeriaceae remain to be discovered in China. This study also provides confirmation for the wide host range of Botryosphaeriaceae species on different plants.

A Method to Detect and Quantify Eutypa lata and Diplodia seriata-Complex DNA in Grapevine Pruning Wounds

Trunk diseases are factors that limit sustainability of vineyards worldwide. Botryosphaeria and Eutypa diebacks are caused by several fungi belonging to the Botryosphaeriaceae and Diatrypaceae, respectively, with Diplodia seriata and Eutypa lata being two of the most common species. Previous information indicated that the traditional isolation method used to detect these pathogens from plant samples could underestimate their incidence levels. In the present study, we designed two sets of primers that target the β-tubulin gene and that are amenable for quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) Sybr-Green assays for the detection and quantification of D. seriata-complex (DseCQF/R) and E. lata (ElQF/R) DNA. The design of a species-specific assay was achieved for E. lata. For D. seriata, a species-specific assay could not be designed. The low interspecific diversity across β-tubulin genes resulted in an assay that could not discriminate D. seriata from some closely related species either not yet reported or presenting a low prevalence on grapevine, such as D. intermedia. We validated our technique on grapevine spur samples naturally and artificially infected with D. seriata and E. lata during the dormant season. Experimental grapevines were located in two counties of northern California where the incidence of both pathogens was previously reported. The qPCR assays revealed that a high frequency of pruning wound infections (65%) was achieved naturally by E. lata, while low infection frequency (less than 5%) was observed using the reisolation method. For D. seriata-complex, low (5%) to no natural infection frequencies were observed by the qPCR and the reisolation method, respectively. These results also provided evidence that our qPCR detection methods were more sensitive to assess the incidence of E. lata and D. seriata-complex in plant samples, than traditional isolation techniques. Benefits of molecular methods for the detection of canker pathogens in the field under natural conditions are discussed.

Diversity in the Botryosphaeriales: Looking back, looking forward

The Botryosphaeriales are amongst the most widespread, common and important fungal pathogens of woody plants. Many are also known to exist as endophytes in healthy plant tissues. This special issue highlights a number of key themes in the study of this group of fungi. In particular, there have been dramatic taxonomic changes over the past decade; from one family to nine (including two in this special issue) and from 10 to 33 genera known from culture. It is also clear from many studies that neither morphology nor single locus sequence data are sufficient to define taxa. This problem is exacerbated by the increasing recognition of cryptic species and hybrids (as highlighted for the first time in this special issue). It is futile that management strategies, including quarantine, continue to rely on outdated taxonomic definitions and identification tools. This is especially true in light of growing evidence that many species continue to be moved globally as endophytes in plants and plant products. A well defined natural classification and an extensive collection of tools to study the Botryosphaeriaceae, including a growing number of genomes, now provide a springboard for a much deeper exploration of their biology, biogeography and host associations.

Fungal Planet description sheets: 469-557

Novel species of fungi described in this study include those from various countries as follows: Australia: Apiognomonia lasiopetali on Lasiopetalum sp., Blastacervulus eucalyptorum on Eucalyptus adesmophloia, Bullanockia australis (incl. Bullanockia gen. nov.) on Kingia australis, Caliciopsis eucalypti on Eucalyptus marginata, Celerioriella petrophiles on Petrophile teretifolia, Coleophoma xanthosiae on Xanthosia rotundifolia, Coniothyrium hakeae on Hakea sp., Diatrypella banksiae on Banksia formosa, Disculoides corymbiae on Corymbia calophylla, Elsinoë eelemani on Melaleuca alternifolia, Elsinoë eucalyptigena on Eucalyptus kingsmillii, Elsinoë preissianae on Eucalyptus preissiana, Eucasphaeria rustici on Eucalyptus creta, Hyweljonesia queenslandica (incl. Hyweljonesia gen. nov.) on the cocoon of an unidentified microlepidoptera, Mycodiella eucalypti (incl. Mycodiella gen. nov.) on Eucalyptus diversicolor, Myrtapenidiella sporadicae on Eucalyptus sporadica, Neocrinula xanthorrhoeae (incl. Neocrinula gen. nov.) on Xanthorrhoea sp., Ophiocordyceps nooreniae on dead ant, Phaeosphaeriopsis agavacearum on Agave sp., Phlogicylindrium mokarei on Eucalyptus sp., Phyllosticta acaciigena on Acacia suaveolens, Pleurophoma acaciae on Acacia glaucoptera, Pyrenochaeta hakeae on Hakea sp., Readeriella lehmannii on Eucalyptus lehmannii, Saccharata banksiae on Banksia grandis, Saccharata daviesiae on Daviesia pachyphylla, Saccharata eucalyptorum on Eucalyptus bigalerita, Saccharata hakeae on Hakea baxteri, Saccharata hakeicola on Hakea victoria, Saccharata lambertiae on Lambertia ericifolia, Saccharata petrophiles on Petrophile sp., Saccharata petrophilicola on Petrophile fastigiata, Sphaerellopsis hakeae on Hakea sp., and Teichospora kingiae on Kingia australis.Brazil: Adautomilanezia caesalpiniae (incl. Adautomilanezia gen. nov.) on Caesalpina echinata, Arthrophiala arthrospora (incl. Arthrophiala gen. nov.) on Sagittaria montevidensis, Diaporthe caatingaensis (endophyte from Tacinga inamoena), Geastrum ishikawae on sandy soil, Geastrum pusillipilosum on soil, Gymnopus pygmaeus on dead leaves and sticks, Inonotus hymenonitens on decayed angiosperm trunk, Pyricularia urashimae on Urochloa brizantha, and Synnemellisia aurantia on Passiflora edulis. Chile: Tubulicrinis australis on Lophosoria quadripinnata.France: Cercophora squamulosa from submerged wood, and Scedosporium cereisporum from fluids of a wastewater treatment plant. Hawaii: Beltraniella acaciae, Dactylaria acaciae, Rhexodenticula acaciae, Rubikia evansii and Torula acaciae (all on Acacia koa).India: Lepidoderma echinosporum on dead semi-woody stems, and Rhodocybe rubrobrunnea from soil. Iran: Talaromyces kabodanensis from hypersaline soil. La Réunion: Neocordana musarum from leaves of Musa sp. Malaysia: Anungitea eucalyptigena on Eucalyptus grandis × pellita, Camptomeriphila leucaenae (incl. Camptomeriphila gen. nov.) on Leucaena leucocephala, Castanediella communis on Eucalyptus pellita, Eucalyptostroma eucalypti (incl. Eucalyptostroma gen. nov.) on Eucalyptus pellita, Melanconiella syzygii on Syzygium sp., Mycophilomyces periconiae (incl. Mycophilomyces gen. nov.) as hyperparasite on Periconia on leaves of Albizia falcataria, Synnemadiella eucalypti (incl. Synnemadiella gen. nov.) on Eucalyptus pellita, and Teichospora nephelii on Nephelium lappaceum.Mexico: Aspergillus bicephalus from soil. New Zealand: Aplosporella sophorae on Sophora microphylla, Libertasomyces platani on Platanus sp., Neothyronectria sophorae (incl. Neothyronectria gen. nov.) on Sophora microphylla, Parastagonospora phoenicicola on Phoenix canariensis, Phaeoacremonium pseudopanacis on Pseudopanax crassifolius, Phlyctema phoenicis on Phoenix canariensis, and Pseudoascochyta novae-zelandiae on Cordyline australis.Panama: Chalara panamensis from needle litter of Pinus cf. caribaea. South Africa: Exophiala eucalypti on leaves of Eucalyptus sp., Fantasmomyces hyalinus (incl. Fantasmomyces gen. nov.) on Acacia exuvialis, Paracladophialophora carceris (incl. Paracladophialophora gen. nov.) on Aloe sp., and Umthunziomyces hagahagensis (incl. Umthunziomyces gen. nov.) on Mimusops caffra.Spain: Clavaria griseobrunnea on bare ground in Pteridium aquilinum field, Cyathus ibericus on small fallen branches of Pinus halepensis, Gyroporus pseudolacteus in humus of Pinus pinaster, and Pseudoascochyta pratensis (incl. Pseudoascochyta gen. nov.) from soil. Thailand: Neoascochyta adenii on Adenium obesum, and Ochroconis capsici on Capsicum annuum. UK: Fusicolla melogrammae from dead stromata of Melogramma campylosporum on bark of Carpinus betulus. Uruguay: Myrmecridium pulvericola from house dust. USA: Neoscolecobasidium agapanthi (incl. Neoscolecobasidium gen. nov.) on Agapanthus sp., Polyscytalum purgamentum on leaf litter, Pseudopithomyces diversisporus from human toenail, Saksenaea trapezispora from knee wound of a soldier, and Sirococcus quercus from Quercus sp. Morphological and culture characteristics along with DNA barcodes are provided.

Families, genera, and species of Botryosphaeriales

Members of Botryosphaeriales are ecologically diverse, but most commonly associated with leaf spots, fruit and root rots, die-back or cankers of diverse woody hosts. Based on morphology and DNA sequence data, the Botryosphaeriales have to date been shown to contain eight families, with an additional two, Endomelanconiopsisaceae (Endomelanconiopsis) and Pseudofusicoccumaceae (Pseudofusicoccum) being newly described in this study. Furthermore, Oblongocollomyces is introduced as new genus, while Spencermartinsia is reduced to synonymy under Dothiorella. Novel species include Diplodia pyri (Pyrus sp., the Netherlands), Diplodia citricarpa (Citrus sp., Iran), Lasiodiplodia vitis (Vitis vinifera, Italy), L. sterculiae (Sterculia oblonga, Germany), Neofusicoccum pistaciarum (Pistacia vera, USA), N. buxi (Buxus sempervirens, France), N. stellenboschiana (Vitis vinifera, South Africa), and Saccharata hawaiiensis (Protea laurifolia, Hawaii). New combinations are also proposed for Camarosporium pistaciae (associated with fruit rot of Pistacia vera) in Neofusicoccum, and Sphaeria gallae (associated with galls of Quercus) in Diplodia. The combination of large subunit of the nuclear ribosomal RNA gene (LSU)-rpb2 proved effective at delineating taxa at family and generic level. Furthermore, rpb2 also added additional resolution for species delimitation, in combination with ITS, tef1 and tub2. In this study we analysed 499 isolates, and produce an expanded phylogenetic backbone for Botryosphaeriales, which will help to delimit novelties at species, genus and family level in future.

Botryosphaeriaceae species associated with dieback and canker disease of bay laurel in northern California with the description of Dothiorella californica sp. nov

Members of the Botryosphaeriaceae are cosmopolitan fungi that may exist as seemingly innocuous endophytes or as destructive pathogens of numerous woody hosts, including fruit and nut crops, urban ornamental trees and shrubs, and forest trees. Surveys of bay laurel in northern California have revealed symptoms of dieback and branch canker of unknown aetiology. The goals of this study were to identify and clarify the species of Botryosphaeriaceae associated with these symptoms and to confirm their pathogenicity. To understand the role of members of the Botryosphaeriaceae in the dieback and canker disease of bay laurel, 23 isolates were isolated from symptomatic wood. Phylogenetic analyses of ITS, translation elongation factor 1-α, and beta-tubulin revealed three species: Botryosphaeria dothidea, Neofusicoccum nonquaesitum, and the newly described and typified species Dothiorella californica sp. nov. When select isolates were inoculated to 2- to 3-year-old branches of Umbellularia californica in a natural forest, both B. dothidea and N. nonquaesitum were pathogenic with N. nonquaesitum producing the largest lesions at 12- and 18-months post inoculation, respectively, while Do. californica did not cause wood lesions significantly greater than the mock-inoculated controls. This study represents the first attempt to identify and test the pathogenicity of Botryosphaeriaceae species associated with dieback and canker disease of bay laurel in a northern California forest.

Endophytic Botryosphaeriaceae, including five new species, associated with mangrove trees in South Africa

Little is known regarding the fungi, especially fungal pathogens, associated with mangroves in Africa. This includes fungi in the Botryosphaeriaceae that comprise numerous opportunistic, stress-associated pathogens often associated with trees affected by environmental and anthropogenically generated stresses, such as those affecting mangroves. We investigated the occurrence of endophytic Botryosphaeriaceae along the entire distribution of mangroves in South Africa. Asymptomatic branches were collected from ten localities and six mangrove species. Isolates resembling species of Botryosphaeriaceae were identified based on multi-gene sequence data of the internal transcribed spacer regions (ITS), including the 5.8S nrRNA, the beta-tubulin (tub2), partial translation elongation factor 1-alpha (tef1-α), and DNA-directed RNA polymerase II second largest subunit (rpb2) gene regions. Inoculation trials were conducted on healthy branches of Avicennia marina and Bruguiera gymnorrhiza to evaluate the potential pathogenicity of the collected species. Fourteen species in the Botryosphaeriaceae belonging to four genera, Botryosphaeria, Diplodia, Lasiodiplodia, and Neofusicoccum were collected, including five new species. Neofusicoccum was the most prevalent genus followed by Lasiodiplodia, with species of Diplodia and Botryosphaeria being the least frequent. The inoculation studies revealed that one of the new species, Lasiodiplodia avicenniae is highly pathogenic to A. marina and could pose a threat to the health of these trees.

Phylogenetic species recognition and hybridisation in Lasiodiplodia: A case study on species from baobabs

Lasiodiplodia species (Botryosphaeriaceae, Ascomycota) infect a wide range of typically woody plants on which they are associated with many different disease symptoms. In this study, we determined the identity of Lasiodiplodia isolates obtained from baobab (Adansonia species) trees in Africa and reviewed the molecular markers used to describe Lasiodiplodia species. Publicly available and newly produced sequence data for some of the type strains of Lasiodiplodia species showed incongruence amongst phylogenies of five nuclear loci. We conclude that several of the previously described Lasiodiplodia species are hybrids of other species. Isolates from baobab trees in Africa included nine species of Lasiodiplodia and two hybrid species. Inoculation trials with the most common Lasiodiplodia species collected from these trees produced significant lesions on young baobab trees. There was also variation in aggressiveness amongst isolates from the same species. The apparently widespread tendency of Lasiodiplodia species to hybridise demands that phylogenies from multiple loci (more than two and preferably four or more) are compared for congruence prior to new species being described. This will avoid hybrids being incorrectly described as new taxa, as has clearly occurred in the past.

Analysis of phylogeny, distribution, and pathogenicity of Botryosphaeriaceae species associated with gummosis of Anacardium in Brazil, with a new species of Lasiodiplodia

Netto, M. S. B., Lima, W. G., Correia, K. C., da Silva, C. F. B., Thon, M., Martins, R. B., Miller, R. N. G., Michereff, S. J., and Câmara, M. P. S. 2016. Analysis of phylogeny, distribution, and pathogenicity of Botryosphaeriaceae species associated with gummosis of Anacardium in Brazil, with a new species of Lasiodiplodia. We identified Botryosphaeriaceae species associated with gummosis on Anacardium in Brazil. Isolates were sampled and identified on the basis morphology and phylogeny, through analysis of a partial translation elongation factor 1-α sequence, ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacers, and β-tubulin gene sequence. Ten taxa were identified, namely, Lasiodiplodia brasiliense, L. euphorbicola, L. gonubiensis, L. iraniensis, L. jatrophicola, L. gravistriata sp. nov., L. pseudotheobromae, L. theobromae, Neofusicoccum batangarum, and Pseudofusicoccum stromaticum. Lasiodiplodia theobromae has been previously reported in cashew and is the most prevalent species observed. All the other species are reported here for the first time on this host. All species of Botryosphaeriaceae were pathogenic on detached green cashew shoots. Differences in aggressiveness were observed among the species, with N. batangarum, L. iraniensis, L. jatrophicola, and L. gravistriata characterized as the most aggressive species, whilst L. euphorbicola and L. pseudotheobromae were identified as the least aggressive.

Phylogeny and pathogenicity of Lasiodiplodia species associated with dieback of mango in Peru

Mango, which is an important tropical fruit crop in the region of Piura (Peru), is known to be prone to a range of diseases caused by Lasiodiplodia spp. The aim of this study was to evaluate the incidence and prevalence of mango dieback in the region of Piura, and to identify the species of Lasiodiplodia associated with the disease and evaluate their pathogenicity towards mango. Mango dieback was present in all orchards surveyed but incidence varied with location. Identification of fungal isolates was based on morphological and cultural characteristics as well as sequence data of the rDNA internal transcribed spacer region (ITS) and translation elongation factor 1-alpha gene (tef1-α). The following Lasiodiplodia species were identified: Lasiodiplodia brasiliense, Lasiodiplodia egyptiacae (for which the new combination Lasiodiplodia laeliocattleyae is introduced), Lasiodiplodia iraniensis, Lasiodiplodia pseudotheobromae, Lasiodiplodia theobromae, and a Lasiodiplodia sp. Individual and combined gene genealogies suggest that this Lasiodiplodia sp. is possibly a hybrid of Lasiodiplodia citricola and Lasiodiplodia parva. Apart from Lasiodiplodia theobromae, which was the most prevalent species, all other species are newly reported from Peru. Moreover, L. iraniensis is reported for the first time on mango. Inoculation trials of mango plants confirmed Koch's postulates, and revealed differences in aggressiveness among species and isolates.

Phylogeny, Identification, and Pathogenicity of Lasiodiplodia Associated with Postharvest Stem-End Rot of Coconut in Brazil

Coconut palm (Cocos nucifera L.) is one of the most important perennial tropical crops. Stem-end rot is the major postharvest disease of coconut in Brazil. The fungus Lasiodiplodia theobromae is the only species that has been reported to be associated with this disease. However, a comprehensive study elucidating the true identity of this pathogen with molecular tools has never been conducted. In recent years, new species of Lasiodiplodia have been proposed after molecular studies were performed, indicating the existence of a species complex. The aims of this research were to study the etiology of the postharvest stem-end rot of immature coconut based on a combination of morphological and phylogenetic analyses, to establish the phylogenetic position of such taxa, and to assess the pathogenicity of each taxon. Four species were identified: L. brasiliense, L. egyptiacae, L. pseudotheobromae, and L. theobromae. All of the species were distinguished morphologically and phylogenetically and were proven to be pathogenic to coconut following artificial inoculation. L. theobromae was the most common and the most aggressive species. This study represents the first report of three additional species of Lasiodiplodia as causal agents of postharvest stem-end rot of immature coconut in Brazil.