1
|
Peltek OO, Muslimov AR, Zyuzin MV, Timin AS. Current outlook on radionuclide delivery systems: from design consideration to translation into clinics. J Nanobiotechnology 2019; 17:90. [PMID: 31434562 PMCID: PMC6704557 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-019-0524-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2019] [Accepted: 08/14/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Radiopharmaceuticals have proven to be effective agents, since they can be successfully applied for both diagnostics and therapy. Effective application of relevant radionuclides in pre-clinical and clinical studies depends on the choice of a sufficient delivery platform. Herein, we provide a comprehensive review on the most relevant aspects in radionuclide delivery using the most employed carrier systems, including, (i) monoclonal antibodies and their fragments, (ii) organic and (iii) inorganic nanoparticles, and (iv) microspheres. This review offers an extensive analysis of radionuclide delivery systems, the approaches of their modification and radiolabeling strategies with the further prospects of their implementation in multimodal imaging and disease curing. Finally, the comparative outlook on the carriers and radionuclide choice, as well as on the targeting efficiency of the developed systems is discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Oleksii O Peltek
- Russian Research Center of Radiology and Surgical Technologies (RRCRST) of Ministry of Public Health, Leningradskaya Street 70 Pesochny, Saint-Petersburg, 197758, Russian Federation
| | - Albert R Muslimov
- Russian Research Center of Radiology and Surgical Technologies (RRCRST) of Ministry of Public Health, Leningradskaya Street 70 Pesochny, Saint-Petersburg, 197758, Russian Federation
| | - Mikhail V Zyuzin
- Faculty of Physics and Engineering, ITMO University, St. Petersburg, 197101, Russia
| | - Alexander S Timin
- Russian Research Center of Radiology and Surgical Technologies (RRCRST) of Ministry of Public Health, Leningradskaya Street 70 Pesochny, Saint-Petersburg, 197758, Russian Federation.
- Research School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, National Research Tomsk Polytechnic University, Lenin Avenue 30, Tomsk, 634050, Russia.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Li KP, Hu MK, Kwang-Fu Shen C, Lin WY, Hou S, Zhao LB, Cheng CY, Shen DH. Improved and optimized one-pot method for N-succinimidyl-4-[(18)F]fluorobenzoate ([(18)F]SFB) synthesis using microwaves. Appl Radiat Isot 2014; 94:113-117. [PMID: 25154567 DOI: 10.1016/j.apradiso.2014.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2014] [Revised: 07/23/2014] [Accepted: 07/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
N-Succinimidyl-4-[(18)F]fluorobenzoate ([(18)F]SFB) is a potential prosthetic agent for novel tracer development in positron emission tomography (PET). Previously, we reported a microwave-assisted one-pot synthesis of [(18)F]SFB with high efficacy. Herein, we reveal an improved and optimized approach based on this former model for producing [(18)F]SFB. With optimized approaches, the entire protocol can be completed within 25min, and [(18)F]SFB is generated in satisfactory quality for direct use without further purification via high-performance liquid chromatography.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kang-Po Li
- Department of Nuclear Medicine/PET Center, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, No. 325, Sec. 2, Cheng-kung Rd., Neihu District, Taipei City 114, Taiwan, ROC; Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles, 23-120 Center for Health Science, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, 570 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; California Nanosystems Institute, 570 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
| | - Ming-Kuan Hu
- School of Pharmacy, National Defense Medical Center, No. 161, Sec. 6, Minquan E. Rd., Neihu District, Taipei City 114, Taiwan, ROC.
| | - Clifton Kwang-Fu Shen
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles, 23-120 Center for Health Science, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, 570 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; California Nanosystems Institute, 570 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
| | - Wei-Yu Lin
- Department of Medicinal and Applied Chemistry, Kaohsiung Medical University, No. 100, Shih-Chuan 1st Rd., Kaohsiung City 80708, Taiwan, ROC; Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles, 23-120 Center for Health Science, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, 570 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; California Nanosystems Institute, 570 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
| | - Shuang Hou
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles, 23-120 Center for Health Science, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, 570 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; California Nanosystems Institute, 570 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
| | - Li-Bo Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Nanostructure and Nanotechnology, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Science, Beiyi Street 2#, Zhongguancun, Beijing 100190, PR China; Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles, 23-120 Center for Health Science, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, 570 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; California Nanosystems Institute, 570 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
| | - Cheng-Yi Cheng
- Department of Nuclear Medicine/PET Center, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, No. 325, Sec. 2, Cheng-kung Rd., Neihu District, Taipei City 114, Taiwan, ROC.
| | - Daniel H Shen
- Department of Nuclear Medicine/PET Center, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, No. 325, Sec. 2, Cheng-kung Rd., Neihu District, Taipei City 114, Taiwan, ROC.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Lazari M, Collins J, Shen B, Farhoud M, Yeh D, Maraglia B, Chin FT, Nathanson DA, Moore M, van Dam RM. Fully automated production of diverse 18F-labeled PET tracers on the ELIXYS multireactor radiosynthesizer without hardware modification. J Nucl Med Technol 2014; 42:203-10. [PMID: 25033883 DOI: 10.2967/jnmt.114.140392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Fully automated radiosynthesizers are continuing to be developed to meet the growing need for the reliable production of PET tracers made under current good manufacturing practice guidelines. There is a current trend toward supporting kitlike disposable cassettes that come preconfigured for particular tracers, thus eliminating the need for cleaning protocols between syntheses and enabling quick transitions to synthesizing other tracers. Though ideal for production, these systems are often limited for the development of novel tracers because of pressure, temperature, and chemical compatibility considerations. This study demonstrated the versatile use of the ELIXYS fully automated radiosynthesizer to adapt and produce 8 different (18)F-labeled PET tracers of varying complexity. METHODS Three-reactor syntheses of 2-deoxy-2-(18)F-fluoro-β-d-arabinofuranosylcytosine (d-(18)F-FAC), 2-deoxy-2-(18)F-fluoro-5-methyl-β-l-arabinofuranosyluracil (l-(18)F-FMAU), and 2-deoxy-2-(18)F-fluoro-5-ethyl-β-d-arabinofuranosyluracil (d-(18)F-FEAU) along with the 1-reactor syntheses of d-(18)F-FEAU, (18)F-FDG, 3-deoxy-3-(18)F-fluoro-l-thymidine ((18)F-FLT), (18)F-fallypride, 9-(4-(18)F-fluoro-3-hydroxymethylbutyl)-guanine ((18)F-FHBG), and N-succinimidyl-4-(18)F-fluorobenzoate ((18)F-SFB), were all produced using ELIXYS without the need for any hardware modifications or reconfiguration. Synthesis protocols were adapted and slightly modified from those in the literature but were not fully optimized. Furthermore, (18)F-FLT, (18)F-FDG, and (18)F-fallypride were produced sequentially on the same day and used for preclinical imaging of A431 tumor-bearing severe combined immunodeficient mice and wild-type BALB/c mice. To assess future translation to the clinical setting, several batches of tracers were subjected to a full set of quality control tests. RESULTS All tracers were produced with radiochemical yields comparable to those in the literature. (18)F-FLT, (18)F-FDG, and (18)F-fallypride were successfully used to image the mice, with results consistent with those reported in the literature. All tracers that were subjected to clinical quality control tests passed. CONCLUSION The ELIXYS radiosynthesizer facilitates rapid tracer development and is capable of producing multiple (18)F-labeled PET tracers suitable for clinical applications using the same hardware setup.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mark Lazari
- Department of Bioengineering, Henry Samueli School of Engineering, UCLA, Los Angeles, California Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, California Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, California
| | - Jeffrey Collins
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, California Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, California
| | - Bin Shen
- Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS) Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | | | - Daniel Yeh
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, California Ahmanson Translational Imaging Division, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, California
| | - Brandon Maraglia
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, California Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, California Sofie Biosciences, Inc., Culver City, California; and
| | - Frederick T Chin
- Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS) Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - David A Nathanson
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, California Ahmanson Translational Imaging Division, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, California
| | - Melissa Moore
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, California Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, California Sofie Biosciences, Inc., Culver City, California; and
| | - R Michael van Dam
- Department of Bioengineering, Henry Samueli School of Engineering, UCLA, Los Angeles, California Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, California Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, California
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Sugiura G, Kühn H, Sauter M, Haberkorn U, Mier W. Radiolabeling strategies for tumor-targeting proteinaceous drugs. Molecules 2014; 19:2135-65. [PMID: 24552984 PMCID: PMC6271853 DOI: 10.3390/molecules19022135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2013] [Revised: 01/16/2014] [Accepted: 02/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Owing to their large size proteinaceous drugs offer higher operative information content compared to the small molecules that correspond to the traditional understanding of druglikeness. As a consequence these drugs allow developing patient-specific therapies that provide the means to go beyond the possibilities of current drug therapy. However, the efficacy of these strategies, in particular "personalized medicine", depends on precise information about individual target expression rates. Molecular imaging combines non-invasive imaging methods with tools of molecular and cellular biology and thus bridges current knowledge to the clinical use. Moreover, nuclear medicine techniques provide therapeutic applications with tracers that behave like the diagnostic tracer. The advantages of radioiodination, still the most versatile radiolabeling strategy, and other labeled compounds comprising covalently attached radioisotopes are compared to the use of chelator-protein conjugates that are complexed with metallic radioisotopes. With the techniques using radioactive isotopes as a reporting unit or even the therapeutic principle, care has to be taken to avoid cleavage of the radionuclide from the protein it is linked to. The tracers used in molecular imaging require labeling techniques that provide site specific conjugation and metabolic stability. Appropriate choice of the radionuclide allows tailoring the properties of the labeled protein to the application required. Until the event of positron emission tomography the spectrum of nuclides used to visualize cellular and biochemical processes was largely restricted to iodine isotopes and 99m-technetium. Today, several nuclides such as 18-fluorine, 68-gallium and 86-yttrium have fundamentally extended the possibilities of tracer design and in turn caused the need for the development of chemical methods for their conjugation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Grant Sugiura
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 400, Heidelberg D-69120, Germany
| | - Helen Kühn
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 400, Heidelberg D-69120, Germany
| | - Max Sauter
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 400, Heidelberg D-69120, Germany
| | - Uwe Haberkorn
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 400, Heidelberg D-69120, Germany
| | - Walter Mier
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 400, Heidelberg D-69120, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Rensch C, Jackson A, Lindner S, Salvamoser R, Samper V, Riese S, Bartenstein P, Wängler C, Wängler B. Microfluidics: a groundbreaking technology for PET tracer production? Molecules 2013; 18:7930-56. [PMID: 23884128 PMCID: PMC6270045 DOI: 10.3390/molecules18077930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2013] [Revised: 06/21/2013] [Accepted: 07/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Application of microfluidics to Positron Emission Tomography (PET) tracer synthesis has attracted increasing interest within the last decade. The technical advantages of microfluidics, in particular the high surface to volume ratio and resulting fast thermal heating and cooling rates of reagents can lead to reduced reaction times, increased synthesis yields and reduced by-products. In addition automated reaction optimization, reduced consumption of expensive reagents and a path towards a reduced system footprint have been successfully demonstrated. The processing of radioactivity levels required for routine production, use of microfluidic-produced PET tracer doses in preclinical and clinical imaging as well as feasibility studies on autoradiolytic decomposition have all given promising results. However, the number of microfluidic synthesizers utilized for commercial routine production of PET tracers is very limited. This study reviews the state of the art in microfluidic PET tracer synthesis, highlighting critical design aspects, strengths, weaknesses and presenting several characteristics of the diverse PET market space which are thought to have a significant impact on research, development and engineering of microfluidic devices in this field. Furthermore, the topics of batch- and single-dose production, cyclotron to quality control integration as well as centralized versus de-centralized market distribution models are addressed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christian Rensch
- GE Global Research, Freisinger Landstrasse 50, Garching bei Munich 85748, Germany; E-Mails: (R.S.); (V.S.)
| | - Alexander Jackson
- GE Healthcare, Life Sciences, The Grove Centre, White Lion Rd., Amersham HP7 9LL, UK; E-Mails: (A.J.); (S.R.)
| | - Simon Lindner
- University Hospital Munich, Department of Nuclear Medicine, Ludwig Maximilians-University, Munich 81377, Germany; E-Mails: (S.L.); (P.B.); (C.W.)
| | - Ruben Salvamoser
- GE Global Research, Freisinger Landstrasse 50, Garching bei Munich 85748, Germany; E-Mails: (R.S.); (V.S.)
| | - Victor Samper
- GE Global Research, Freisinger Landstrasse 50, Garching bei Munich 85748, Germany; E-Mails: (R.S.); (V.S.)
| | - Stefan Riese
- GE Healthcare, Life Sciences, The Grove Centre, White Lion Rd., Amersham HP7 9LL, UK; E-Mails: (A.J.); (S.R.)
| | - Peter Bartenstein
- University Hospital Munich, Department of Nuclear Medicine, Ludwig Maximilians-University, Munich 81377, Germany; E-Mails: (S.L.); (P.B.); (C.W.)
| | - Carmen Wängler
- University Hospital Munich, Department of Nuclear Medicine, Ludwig Maximilians-University, Munich 81377, Germany; E-Mails: (S.L.); (P.B.); (C.W.)
- Biomedical Chemistry, Department of Clinical Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Medical Faculty Mannheim of Heidelberg University, Mannheim 68167, Germany
| | - Björn Wängler
- Molecular Imaging and Radiochemistry, Department of Clinical Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Medical Faculty Mannheim of Heidelberg University, Mannheim 68167, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Yang Z, Xiong C, Zhang R, Zhu H, Li C. Synthesis and evaluation of (68)Ga-labeled DOTA-2-deoxy-D-glucosamine as a potential radiotracer in μPET imaging. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF NUCLEAR MEDICINE AND MOLECULAR IMAGING 2012; 2:499-507. [PMID: 23145365 PMCID: PMC3484416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2012] [Accepted: 09/27/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
The purposes of this study were to develop an efficient method of labeling D-glucosamine hydrochloride with gallium 68 ((68)Ga) and investigate the imaging properties of the resulting radiotracer in a human tumor xenograft model using micro-positron emission tomography (μPET). The precursor compound 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid (DOTA)-2-deoxy-D-glucosamine (DOTA-DG) was synthesized from D-glucosamine hydrochloride and 2-(4-isothiocyanatobenzyl)-DOTA. Radiolabeling of DOTA-DG with (68)Ga was achieved in 10 minutes using microwave heating. The labeling efficiency a nd radiochemical purity after purification of (68)Ga-DOTA-DG were ~85% and greater than 98%, respectively. In A431 cells, the percentages of (68)Ga-DOTA-DG and (18)F-FDG uptakes after 60 min incubation were 15.7% and 16.2%, respectively. In vivo, the mean ± standard deviation of (68)Ga-DOTADG uptake values in A431 tumors were 2.38±0.30, 0.75±0.13, and 0.39±0.04 percent of the injected dose per gram of tissue at 10, 30, and 60 minutes after intravenous injection, respectively. μPET imaging of A431-bearing mice clearly delineated tumors at 60 minutes after injection of (68)Ga-DOTA-DG at a dose of 3.7 MBq. (68)Ga-DOTA-DG displayed significantly higher tumor-to-heart, tumor-to-brain, and tumor-to-muscle ratios than (18)F-FDG did. Further studies are needed to identify the mechanism of tumor uptake of this new glucosamine-based PET imaging tracer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhi Yang
- Department of Experimental Diagnostic Imaging, Unit 59, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center1515 Holcombe Boulevard, Houston, TX 77030, USA
- Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education), Department of Nuclear Medicine, Peking University Cancer Hospital & InstituteBeijing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Chiyi Xiong
- Department of Experimental Diagnostic Imaging, Unit 59, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center1515 Holcombe Boulevard, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Rui Zhang
- Department of Experimental Diagnostic Imaging, Unit 59, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center1515 Holcombe Boulevard, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Hua Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education), Department of Nuclear Medicine, Peking University Cancer Hospital & InstituteBeijing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Chun Li
- Department of Experimental Diagnostic Imaging, Unit 59, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center1515 Holcombe Boulevard, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Zhou D, Chu W, Dence CS, Mach RH, Welch MJ. Highly efficient click labeling using 2-[¹⁸F]fluoroethyl azide and synthesis of an ¹⁸FN-hydroxysuccinimide ester as conjugation agent. Nucl Med Biol 2012; 39:1175-81. [PMID: 22770647 DOI: 10.1016/j.nucmedbio.2012.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2012] [Revised: 05/21/2012] [Accepted: 06/02/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Click labeling using 2-[¹⁸F]fluoroethyl azide has been proven to be promising methods of radiolabeling small molecules and peptides, some of which are undergoing clinical evaluations. However, the previously reported method afforded low yield, poor purities and under desirable reproducibility. METHODS A vacuum distillation method was used to isolate 2-[¹⁸F]fluoroethyl azide, and the solvent effect of acetonitrile and dimethylformamide (DMF) on the click labeling using Cu(I) from copper sulfate/sodium ascorbate was studied. The labeling conditions were optimized to radiosynthesize a hydroxysuccinimide ester (N-hydroxysuccinimide, or NHS). RESULTS 2-[¹⁸F]fluoroethyl azide was isolated by the vacuum distillation method with >80% yield within 10min in a "pure" and click-ready form. It was found that the amount of DMF was critical for maintaining high levels of Cu(I) from copper sulfate/sodium ascorbate in order to rapidly complete the click labeling reaction. The addition of bathophenanthrolinedisulfonic acid disodium salt to the mixture of copper sulfate/sodium ascorbate also greatly improved the click labeling efficiency. Through exploiting these optimizations, a base-labile NHS ester was rapidly radiosynthesized in 90% isolated yield with good chemical and radiochemical purities. CONCLUSIONS We have developed a general method to click-label small molecules efficiently using [¹⁸F]2 for research and clinical use. This NHS ester can be used for conjugation chemistry to label antibodies, peptides and small molecules as positron emission tomography tracers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dong Zhou
- Mallinckrodt Institute of Radiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Olafsen T, Sirk SJ, Olma S, Shen CKF, Wu AM. ImmunoPET using engineered antibody fragments: fluorine-18 labeled diabodies for same-day imaging. Tumour Biol 2012; 33:669-77. [DOI: 10.1007/s13277-012-0365-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2011] [Accepted: 02/14/2012] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
|
9
|
|