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Skiba J, Kowalczyk A, Trzybiński D, Woźniak K, Vrček V, Gapińska M, Kowalski K. Stereo‐Defined Ferrocenyl Glycol Nucleic Acid (Fc‐GNA) Constituents: Synthesis, Electrochemistry, Mechanism of Formation, and Anticancer Activity Studies. Eur J Inorg Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ejic.202100193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Skiba
- Faculty of Chemistry Department of Organic Chemistry University of Łódź Tamka 12 91-403 Łódź Poland
| | - Aleksandra Kowalczyk
- Department of Molecular Microbiology Institute of Microbiology Biotechnology and Immunology Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection University of Łódź Banacha 12/16 90-237 Łódź Poland
| | - Damian Trzybiński
- Biological and Chemical Research Centre Department of Chemistry University of Warsaw Żwirki i Wigury 101 02-089 Warszawa Poland
| | - Krzysztof Woźniak
- Biological and Chemical Research Centre Department of Chemistry University of Warsaw Żwirki i Wigury 101 02-089 Warszawa Poland
| | - Valerije Vrček
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry University of Zagreb Ante Kovačića 1 10000 Zagreb Croatia
| | - Magdalena Gapińska
- Laboratory of Microscopic Imaging and Specialized Biological Techniques Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection,/> University of Łódź Banacha 12/16 90-237 Łódź Poland
| | - Konrad Kowalski
- Faculty of Chemistry Department of Organic Chemistry University of Łódź Tamka 12 91-403 Łódź Poland
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2
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Wainberg MA. The Need for Development of New HIV-1 Reverse Transcriptase and Integrase Inhibitors in the Aftermath of Antiviral Drug Resistance. SCIENTIFICA 2012; 2012:238278. [PMID: 24278679 PMCID: PMC3820659 DOI: 10.6064/2012/238278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2012] [Accepted: 11/01/2012] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
The use of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) involves combinations of drugs to achieve maximal virological response and reduce the potential for the emergence of antiviral resistance. There are two broad classes of reverse transcriptase inhibitors, the nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) and nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs). Since the first classes of such compounds were developed, viral resistance against them has necessitated the continuous development of novel compounds within each class. This paper considers the NRTIs and NNRTIs currently in both preclinical and clinical development or approved for second line therapy and describes the patterns of resistance associated with their use, as well as the underlying mechanisms that have been described. Due to reasons of both affordability and availability, some reverse transcriptase inhibitors with low genetic barrier are more commonly used in resource-limited settings. Their use results to the emergence of specific patterns of antiviral resistance and so may require specific actions to preserve therapeutic options for patients in such settings. More recently, the advent of integrase strand transfer inhibitors represents another major step forward toward control of HIV infection, but these compounds are also susceptible to problems of HIV drug resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A. Wainberg
- Lady Davis Institute, McGill University AIDS Centre, Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, QC, Canada H3T 1E2
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Cellular pharmacology and potency of HIV-1 nucleoside analogs in primary human macrophages. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2012; 57:1262-9. [PMID: 23263005 DOI: 10.1128/aac.02012-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the cellular pharmacology of antiretroviral agents in macrophages and subsequent correlation with antiviral potency provides a sentinel foundation for definition of the dynamics between antiretroviral agents and viral reservoirs across multiple cell types, with the goal of eradication of HIV-1 from these cells. Various clinically relevant nucleoside antiviral agents, and the integrase inhibitor raltegravir, were selected for this study. The intracellular concentrations of the active metabolites of the nucleoside analogs were found to be 5- to 140-fold lower in macrophages than in lymphocytes, and their antiviral potency was significantly lower in macrophages constitutively activated with macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) during acute infection than in resting macrophages (EC(50), 0.4 to 9.42 μM versus 0.03 to 0.4 μM, respectively). Although tenofovir-treated cells displayed significantly lower intracellular drug levels than cells treated with its prodrug, tenofovir disoproxil fumarate, the levels of tenofovir-diphosphate for tenofovir-treated cells were similar in lymphocytes and macrophages. Raltegravir also displayed significantly lower intracellular concentrations in macrophages than in lymphocytes, independent of the activation state, but had similar potencies in resting and activated macrophages. These data underscore the importance of delivering adequate levels of drug to macrophages to reduce and eradicate HIV-1 infection.
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Maiga AI, Fofana DB, Cisse M, Diallo F, Maiga MY, Traore HA, Maiga IA, Sylla A, Fofana D, Taiwo B, Murphy R, Katlama C, Tounkara A, Calvez V, Marcelin AG. Characterization of HIV-1 antiretroviral drug resistance after second-line treatment failure in Mali, a limited-resources setting. J Antimicrob Chemother 2012; 67:2943-8. [PMID: 22888273 PMCID: PMC3584968 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dks310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2012] [Revised: 07/04/2012] [Accepted: 07/09/2012] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES We describe the outcomes of second-line drug resistance profiles and predict the efficacy of drugs for third-line therapy in patients monitored without the benefit of plasma HIV-1 RNA viral load (VL) or resistance testing. METHODS We recruited 106 HIV-1-infected patients after second-line treatment failure in Mali. VL was determined by the Abbott RealTime system and the resistance by the ViroSeq HIV-1 genotyping system. The resistance testing was interpreted using the latest version of the Stanford algorithm. RESULTS Among the 106 patients, 93 had isolates successfully sequenced. The median age, VL and CD4 cells were respectively 35 years, 72 000 copies/mL and 146 cells/mm(3). Patients were exposed to a median of 4 years of treatment and to six antiretrovirals. We found 20% of wild-type viruses. Resistance to etravirine was noted in 38%, to lopinavir in 25% and to darunavir in 12%. The duration of prior nucleos(t)ide reverse transcriptase inhibitor exposure was associated with resistance to abacavir (P < 0.0001) and tenofovir (P = 0.0001), and duration of prior protease inhibitor treatment with resistance to lopinavir (P < 0.0001) and darunavir (P = 0.06). CONCLUSION Long duration of therapy prior to failure was associated with high levels of resistance and is directly related to limited access to VL monitoring and delayed switches to second-line treatment, precluding efficacy of drugs for third-line therapy. This study underlines the need for governments and public health organizations to recommend the use of VL monitoring and also the availability of darunavir and raltegravir for third-line therapies in the context of limited-resource settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Almoustapha Issiaka Maiga
- Unité d'Epidémiologie Moléculaire de la Résistance du VIH aux ARV, SEREFO, FMPOS, University of Sciences Techniques and Technologies of Bamako - USTTB, BP: 1805, Bamako, Mali.
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Asahchop EL, Wainberg MA, Sloan RD, Tremblay CL. Antiviral drug resistance and the need for development of new HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitors. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2012; 56:5000-8. [PMID: 22733071 PMCID: PMC3457356 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00591-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) consists of a combination of drugs to achieve maximal virological response and reduce the potential for the emergence of antiviral resistance. Despite being the first antivirals described to be effective against HIV, reverse transcriptase inhibitors remain the cornerstone of HAART. There are two broad classes of reverse transcriptase inhibitor, the nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) and nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs). Since the first such compounds were developed, viral resistance to them has inevitably been described; this necessitates the continuous development of novel compounds within each class. In this review, we consider the NRTIs and NNRTIs currently in both preclinical and clinical development or approved for second-line therapy and describe the patterns of resistance associated with their use as well as the underlying mechanisms that have been described. Due to reasons of both affordability and availability, some reverse transcriptase inhibitors with a low genetic barrier are more commonly used in resource-limited settings. Their use results in the emergence of specific patterns of antiviral resistance and so may require specific actions to preserve therapeutic options for patients in such settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugene L. Asahchop
- McGill University AIDS Centre, Lady Davis Institute, Jewish General Hospital, Montréal, Québec, Canada
- Centre Hospitalier de I'Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
- Département de Microbiologie et d'Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Mark A. Wainberg
- McGill University AIDS Centre, Lady Davis Institute, Jewish General Hospital, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Richard D. Sloan
- McGill University AIDS Centre, Lady Davis Institute, Jewish General Hospital, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Cécile L. Tremblay
- Centre Hospitalier de I'Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
- Département de Microbiologie et d'Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
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Hurwitz SJ, Schinazi RF. Practical Considerations For Developing Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors. DRUG DISCOVERY TODAY. TECHNOLOGIES 2012; 9:e175-226. [PMID: 23554824 DOI: 10.1016/j.ddtec.2012.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTI) remain a cornerstone of current antiretroviral regimens in combinations usually with a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI), a protease inhibitor (PI), or an integrase inhibitor (INI). The antiretroviral efficacy and relative safety of current NRTI results from a tight and relatively specific binding of their phosphorylated nucleoside triphosphates (NRTI-TP) with the HIV-1 reverse transcriptase which is essential for replication. The intracellular stability of NRTI-TP produces a sustained antiviral response, which makes convenient dosing feasible. Lessons learned regarding NRTI pharmacology screening, development, and use are discussed. NRTI and prodrugs currently under clinical development are outlined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Selwyn J Hurwitz
- Center for AIDS Research, Laboratory of Biochemical Pharmacology, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA ; Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Decatur, Georgia 30033, USA
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Zhou L, Coats SJ, Zhang H, Junxing S, Bobeck DR, Schinazi RF. Scaleable processes for the synthesis of (-)-β-D-2,6-diaminopurine dioxolane (Amdoxovir, DAPD) and (-)-β-D-2-aminopurine dioxolane (APD). Tetrahedron 2012; 68:5738-5743. [PMID: 23162170 DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2012.05.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
An efficient and scalable synthesis of (-)-DAPD and (-)-APD has been developed. We discovered that t-butyl cyanoacetate can be used as a new additive for the sugar nucleoside base coupling step en route to DAPD with improved β-selectivity and an isolated yield four fold greater than the original process scale method. Using this new process, (-)-DAPD has been prepared on greater than 20 g scale. In the synthesis of (-)-APD, a key enzyme-catalyzed hydrolysis reaction afforded the water-soluble deprotected α-anomer while leaving the β-anomer completely untouched.
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Affiliation(s)
- Longhu Zhou
- Center for AIDS Research, Laboratory of Biochemical Pharmacology, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, and Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Atlanta GA 30033, USA
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Desai M, Iyer G, Dikshit RK. Antiretroviral drugs: critical issues and recent advances. Indian J Pharmacol 2012; 44:288-98. [PMID: 22701234 PMCID: PMC3371447 DOI: 10.4103/0253-7613.96296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2012] [Revised: 03/05/2012] [Accepted: 03/10/2012] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection is now recognized as a chronic illness. Although the success of highly active antiretroviral therapy is beyond question, several issues still persist. Since the drugs cannot eradicate the virus, cure is not yet possible, and patients have to maintain a lifelong adherence with the risk of toxic effects, drug-drug interactions and drug resistance. A clear understanding of the viral replication and its interaction with host cell factors has led to the development of a large number of effective antiretroviral drugs (ARVs). New drugs in the existing class such as apricitabine, elvucitabine and etravirine have shown promising results against HIV isolates resistant to first line drugs. These drugs have offered a new choice for patients with drug resistant disease. However, the impact of their long term use on safety is yet to be assessed. Novel drugs with unique mechanism of action such as CD4 receptor attachment inhibitors, maturation inhibitors, pharmacokinetic enhancers, capsid assembly inhibitors and lens epithelium derived growth factor inhibitors are still under development. Currently, ARVs, especially tenofovir and emtricitabine, are also being evaluated for prevention of sexual transmission of HIV-1. The initial results of an HIV prevention trial network are encouraging and have recommended the use of ARVs for pre-exposure prophylaxis. Thus, ARVs form the key component of HIV prevention and treatment strategy. This article discusses the challenges associated with HIV-1 treatment and updates several major advances in the development of ARVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mira Desai
- Department of Pharmacology, B J Medical College, Ahmedabad, India.
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Akanbi MO, Scarsi KK, Scarci K, Taiwo B, Murphy RL. Combination nucleoside/nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors for treatment of HIV infection. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2012; 13:65-79. [PMID: 22149368 PMCID: PMC3397780 DOI: 10.1517/14656566.2012.642865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The combination of two nucleoside/nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (N(t)RTIs) and a third agent from another antiretroviral class is currently recommended for initial antiretroviral therapy. In general, N(t)RTIs remain relevant in subsequent regimens. There are currently six nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors and one nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitor drug entities available, and several formulations that include two or more N(t)RTIs in a fixed-dose combination. These entities have heterogeneous pharmacological and clinical properties. Accordingly, toxicity, pill burden, dosing frequency, potential drug-drug interaction, preexisting antiretroviral drug resistance and comorbid conditions should be considered when constructing a regimen. This approach is critical in order to optimize virologic efficacy and clinical outcomes. AREAS COVERED This article reviews N(t)RTI combinations used in the treatment of HIV-infected adults. The pharmacological properties of each N(t)RTI, and the clinical trials that have influenced treatment guidelines are discussed. EXPERT OPINION It is likely that N(t)RTIs will continue to dominate the global landscape of HIV treatment and prevention, despite emerging interest in N(t)RTI-free combination therapy. Clinical domains where only few alternatives to N(t)RTIs exist include treatment of HIV/HBV coinfection and HIV-2. There is a need for novel N(t)RTIs with enhanced safety and resistance profiles compared with current N(t)RTIs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxwell O Akanbi
- Jos University Teaching Hospital, Department of Internal Medicine, P M B 2076, Jos. Plateau State, 930001, Nigeria
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Mascolini M, Mellors JW, Richman DD, Boucher CAB, Larder BA. HIV and hepatitis virus resistance to antivirals: review of data from the XIX International HIV and Hepatitis Virus Drug Resistance Workshop and curative strategies. Antivir Ther 2011; 16:263-86. [PMID: 21447877 DOI: 10.3851/imp1761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The XIX International HIV and Hepatitis Virus Drug Resistance Workshop offered scientists, clinical investigators, physicians and others an opportunity to present study results selected in a rigorous peer-review process and to discuss those data in an open forum. In 2010, Workshop organizers expanded the programme to include hepatitis B and C viruses, reasoning that workers in all three fields could benefit from shared experience, positive and negative. Slide sessions at the 2010 Workshop focused on hepatitis virus resistance to current and experimental antivirals; epidemiology of HIV resistance; HIV pathogenesis, fitness and resistance; resistance to new antiretrovirals; markers of response to HIV entry inhibitors; HIV persistence, reservoirs and elimination strategies; application of new viral sequencing techniques; and mechanisms of HIV drug resistance. This article summarizes all slide presentations at the Workshop.
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Lack of pharmacokinetic interaction between amdoxovir and reduced- and standard-dose zidovudine in HIV-1-infected individuals. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2009; 54:1248-55. [PMID: 20038617 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01209-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Amdoxovir (AMDX) inhibits HIV-1 containing the M184V/I mutation and is rapidly absorbed and deaminated to its active metabolite, beta-D-dioxolane guanosine (DXG). DXG is synergistic with zidovudine (ZDV) in HIV-1-infected primary human lymphocytes. A recent in silico pharmacokinetic (PK)/enzyme kinetic study suggested that ZDV at 200 mg twice a day (b.i.d.) may reduce toxicity without compromising efficacy relative to the standard 300-mg b.i.d. dose. Therefore, an intense PK clinical study was conducted using AMDX/placebo, with or without ZDV, in 24 subjects randomized to receive oral AMDX at 500 mg b.i.d., AMDX at 500 mg plus ZDV at 200 or 300 mg b.i.d., or ZDV at 200 or 300 mg b.i.d. for 10 days. Full plasma PK profiles were collected on days 1 and 10, and complete urine sampling was performed on day 9. Plasma and urine concentrations of AMDX, DXG, ZDV, and ZDV-5'-O-glucuronide (GZDV) were measured using a validated liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method. Data were analyzed using noncompartmental methods, and multiple comparisons were performed on the log-transformed parameters, at steady state. Coadministration of AMDX with ZDV did not significantly change either of the plasma PK parameters or percent recovery in the urine of AMDX, DXG, or ZDV/GZDV. Larger studies with AMDX/ZDV, with a longer duration, are warranted.
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