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Klawonn I, Dunker S, Kagami M, Grossart HP, Van den Wyngaert S. Intercomparison of Two Fluorescent Dyes to Visualize Parasitic Fungi (Chytridiomycota) on Phytoplankton. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2023; 85:9-23. [PMID: 34854932 PMCID: PMC9849195 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-021-01893-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Fungal microparasites (here chytrids) are widely distributed and yet, they are often overlooked in aquatic environments. To facilitate the detection of microparasites, we revisited the applicability of two fungal cell wall markers, Calcofluor White (CFW) and wheat germ agglutinin (WGA), for the direct visualization of chytrid infections on phytoplankton in laboratory-maintained isolates and field-sampled communities. Using a comprehensive set of chytrid-phytoplankton model pathosystems, we verified the staining pattern on diverse morphological structures of chytrids via fluorescence microscopy. Empty sporangia were stained most effectively, followed by encysted zoospores and im-/mature sporangia, while the staining success was more variable for rhizoids, stalks, and resting spores. In a few instances, the staining was unsuccessful (mostly with WGA), presumably due to insufficient cell fixation, gelatinous cell coatings, and multilayered cell walls. CFW and WGA staining could be done in Utermöhl chambers or on polycarbonate filters, but CFW staining on filters seemed less advisable due to high background fluorescence. To visualize chytrids, 1 µg dye mL-1 was sufficient (but 5 µg mL-1 are recommended). Using a dual CFW-WGA staining protocol, we detected multiple, mostly undescribed chytrids in two natural systems (freshwater and coastal), while falsely positive or negative stained cells were well detectable. As a proof-of-concept, we moreover conducted imaging flow cytometry, as a potential high-throughput technology for quantifying chytrid infections. Our guidelines and recommendations are expected to facilitate the detection of chytrid epidemics and to unveil their ecological and economical imprint in natural and engineered aquatic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabell Klawonn
- Department of Experimental Limnology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), 12587, Berlin, Germany.
- Leibniz Institute for Baltic Sea Research (IOW), Seestrasse 15, 18119, Rostock, Germany.
| | - Susanne Dunker
- Department for Physiological Diversity, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ), 04318, Leipzig, Germany
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv), 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Maiko Kagami
- Faculty of Science, Toho University, Funabashi, Chiba, 274-8510, Japan
- Faculty of Environment and Information Sciences, Yokohama National University, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 240-8502, Japan
| | - Hans-Peter Grossart
- Department of Experimental Limnology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), 12587, Berlin, Germany
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, Potsdam University, 14476, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Silke Van den Wyngaert
- Department of Experimental Limnology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), 12587, Berlin, Germany.
- WasserCluster Lunz, Biologische Station, Dr. Carl Kupelwieser Promenade 5, 3293, Lunz am See, Austria.
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Vesilinnantie 5, 20014, Turku, Finland.
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Fernández-Valero AD, Reñé A, Timoneda N, Sampedro N, Garcés E. Dinoflagellate hosts determine the community structure of marine Chytridiomycota: Demonstration of their prominent interactions. Environ Microbiol 2022; 24:5951-5965. [PMID: 36057937 PMCID: PMC10087856 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.16182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Accepted: 08/26/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The interactions of parasitic fungi with their phytoplankton hosts in the marine environment are mostly unknown. In this study, we evaluated the diversity of Chytridiomycota in phytoplankton communities dominated by dinoflagellates at several coastal locations in the NW Mediterranean Sea and demonstrated the most prominent interactions of these parasites with their hosts. The protist community in seawater differed from that in sediment, with the latter characterized by a greater heterogeneity of putative hosts, such as dinoflagellates and diatoms, as well as a chytrid community more diverse in its composition and with a higher relative abundance. Chytrids accounted for 77 amplicon sequence variants, of which 70 were found exclusively among different blooming host species. The relative abundance of chytrids was highest in samples dominated by the dinoflagellate genera Ostreopsis and Alexandrium, clearly indicating the presence of specific chytrid communities. The establishment of parasitoid-host co-cultures of chytrids and dinoflagellates allowed the morphological identification and molecular characterization of three species of Chytridiomycota, including Dinomyces arenysensis, as one of the most abundant environmental sequences, and the discovery of two other species not yet described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan Denis Fernández-Valero
- Departament de Biologia Marina i Oceanografia, Institut de Ciències del Mar (CSIC), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Albert Reñé
- Departament de Biologia Marina i Oceanografia, Institut de Ciències del Mar (CSIC), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Natàlia Timoneda
- Departament de Biologia Marina i Oceanografia, Institut de Ciències del Mar (CSIC), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Nagore Sampedro
- Departament de Biologia Marina i Oceanografia, Institut de Ciències del Mar (CSIC), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Esther Garcés
- Departament de Biologia Marina i Oceanografia, Institut de Ciències del Mar (CSIC), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
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Calabon MS, Hyde KD, Jones EBG, Luo ZL, Dong W, Hurdeal VG, Gentekaki E, Rossi W, Leonardi M, Thiyagaraja V, Lestari AS, Shen HW, Bao DF, Boonyuen N, Zeng M. Freshwater fungal numbers. FUNGAL DIVERS 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s13225-022-00503-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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4
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Parasitoid chytridiomycete Ericiomyces syringoforeus gen. et sp. nov. has unique cellular structures to infect the host. Mycol Prog 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11557-020-01652-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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5
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Venard CM, Vasudevan KK, Stearns T. Cilium axoneme internalization and degradation in chytrid fungi. Cytoskeleton (Hoboken) 2020; 77:365-378. [PMID: 33103844 PMCID: PMC7944584 DOI: 10.1002/cm.21637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2020] [Revised: 10/12/2020] [Accepted: 10/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Loss of the cilium is important for cell cycle progression and certain developmental transitions. Chytrid fungi are a group of basal fungi that have retained centrioles and cilia, and they can disassemble their cilia via axoneme internalization as part of the transition from free-swimming spores to sessile sporangia. While this type of cilium disassembly has been observed in many single-celled eukaryotes, it has not been well characterized because it is not observed in common model organisms. To better characterize cilium disassembly via axoneme internalization, we focused on chytrids Rhizoclosmatium globosum and Spizellomyces punctatus to represent two lineages of chytrids with different motility characteristics. Our results show that each chytrid species can reel in its axoneme into the cell body along its cortex on the order of minutes, while S. punctatus has additional faster ciliary compartment loss and lash-around mechanisms. S. punctatus retraction can also occur away from the cell cortex and is partially actin dependent. Post-internalization, the tubulin of the axoneme is degraded in both chytrids over the course of about 2 hr. Axoneme disassembly and axonemal tubulin degradation are both partially proteasome dependent. Overall, chytrid cilium disassembly is a fast process that separates axoneme internalization and degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire M Venard
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | | | - Tim Stearns
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, California
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Stanford, California
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6
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Abstract
Oman is a desert country in the south of the Middle East. Springs and other water sources that harbor aquatic organisms can be separated by hundreds of kilometers. In Oct 2019, we isolated four freshwater aquatic fungi (Chytridiomycota) from benthic detritus baited with pine pollen on a general nutrient medium near Salalah, Oman. Database queries of nuc 28S rRNA (28S) and internal transcribed spacer region ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 (ITS) revealed that one of these strains was Dinochytrium kinnereticum, a recently described algal pathogen from the Sea of Galilee. The other three strains had low molecular identity to available ITS sequences. These unknown strains varied in size and released endogenously swarming zoospores through papillae from mature zoosporangia. Zoospore ultrastructure was consistent with described species in the Rhizophydiales, and molecular phylogenetic results grouped these three strains into a clade in the genus Rhizophydium. We circumscribe these three strains as a sp. nov., thereby expanding the diversity within Rhizophydium described as the new species R. jobii. In doing so, we provide the first report of Chytridiomycota from Oman.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon T Hassett
- UiT-The Arctic University of Norway , Framstredet 6, Tromsø 9019, Norway
| | - Badriya K Al-Shaibi
- Department of Crop Sciences, College of Agricultural and Marine Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University , P.O. Box-34, Al-Khod 123, Oman
| | - Abdulrahman Al-Nabhani
- Department of Crop Sciences, College of Agricultural and Marine Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University , P.O. Box-34, Al-Khod 123, Oman
| | - Abdullah M Al-Sadi
- Department of Crop Sciences, College of Agricultural and Marine Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University , P.O. Box-34, Al-Khod 123, Oman
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Rojas-Jimenez K, Rieck A, Wurzbacher C, Jürgens K, Labrenz M, Grossart HP. A Salinity Threshold Separating Fungal Communities in the Baltic Sea. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:680. [PMID: 30984159 PMCID: PMC6449873 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.00680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2018] [Accepted: 03/18/2019] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Salinity is a significant factor for structuring microbial communities, but little is known for aquatic fungi, particularly in the pelagic zone of brackish ecosystems. In this study, we explored the diversity and composition of fungal communities following a progressive salinity decline (from 34 to 3 PSU) along three transects of ca. 2000 km in the Baltic Sea, the world's largest estuary. Based on 18S rRNA gene sequence analysis, we detected clear changes in fungal community composition along the salinity gradient and found significant differences in composition of fungal communities established above and below a critical value of 8 PSU. At salinities below this threshold, fungal communities resembled those from freshwater environments, with a greater abundance of Chytridiomycota, particularly of the orders Rhizophydiales, Lobulomycetales, and Gromochytriales. At salinities above 8 PSU, communities were more similar to those from marine environments and, depending on the season, were dominated by a strain of the LKM11 group (Cryptomycota) or by members of Ascomycota and Basidiomycota. Our results highlight salinity as an important environmental driver also for pelagic fungi, and thus should be taken into account to better understand fungal diversity and ecological function in the aquatic realm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keilor Rojas-Jimenez
- Department of Experimental Limnology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Stechlin, Germany
- Escuela de Biología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Angelika Rieck
- Department of Experimental Limnology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Stechlin, Germany
| | - Christian Wurzbacher
- Department of Experimental Limnology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Stechlin, Germany
- Chair of Urban Water Systems Engineering, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Klaus Jürgens
- Leibniz Institute for Baltic Sea Research, Warnemünde, Germany
| | | | - Hans-Peter Grossart
- Department of Experimental Limnology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Stechlin, Germany
- Institute for Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
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8
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Letcher PM, Powell MJ. Morphology, zoospore ultrastructure, and phylogenetic position of Polyphlyctis willoughbyi, a new species in Chytridiales (Chytridiomycota). Fungal Biol 2018; 122:1171-1183. [DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2018.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2018] [Revised: 08/07/2018] [Accepted: 08/17/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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9
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Seto K, Degawa Y. Pendulichytrium sphaericum gen. et sp. nov. (Chytridiales, Chytriomycetaceae), a new chytrid parasitic on the diatom, Aulacoseira granulata. MYCOSCIENCE 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.myc.2017.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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10
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Wang Y, Guo X, Zheng P, Zou S, Li G, Gong J. Distinct seasonality of chytrid-dominated benthic fungal communities in the neritic oceans (Bohai Sea and North Yellow Sea). FUNGAL ECOL 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.funeco.2017.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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11
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Rojas-Jimenez K, Wurzbacher C, Bourne EC, Chiuchiolo A, Priscu JC, Grossart HP. Early diverging lineages within Cryptomycota and Chytridiomycota dominate the fungal communities in ice-covered lakes of the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica. Sci Rep 2017; 7:15348. [PMID: 29127335 PMCID: PMC5681503 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-15598-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2017] [Accepted: 10/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Antarctic ice-covered lakes are exceptional sites for studying the ecology of aquatic fungi under conditions of minimal human disturbance. In this study, we explored the diversity and community composition of fungi in five permanently covered lake basins located in the Taylor and Miers Valleys of Antarctica. Based on analysis of the 18S rRNA sequences, we showed that fungal taxa represented between 0.93% and 60.32% of the eukaryotic sequences. Cryptomycota and Chytridiomycota dominated the fungal communities in all lakes; however, members of Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Zygomycota, and Blastocladiomycota were also present. Of the 1313 fungal OTUs identified, the two most abundant, belonging to LKM11 and Chytridiaceae, comprised 74% of the sequences. Significant differences in the community structure were determined among lakes, water depths, habitat features (i.e., brackish vs. freshwaters), and nucleic acids (DNA vs. RNA), suggesting niche differentiation. Network analysis suggested the existence of strong relationships among specific fungal phylotypes as well as between fungi and other eukaryotes. This study sheds light on the biology and ecology of basal fungi in aquatic systems. To our knowledge, this is the first report showing the predominance of early diverging lineages of fungi in pristine limnetic ecosystems, particularly of the enigmatic phylum Cryptomycota.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keilor Rojas-Jimenez
- Department of Experimental Limnology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Alte Fischerhuette 2, D-16775, Stechlin, Germany.,Universidad Latina de Costa Rica, Campus San Pedro, Apdo, 10138-1000, San Jose, Costa Rica
| | - Christian Wurzbacher
- Department of Experimental Limnology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Alte Fischerhuette 2, D-16775, Stechlin, Germany.,Berlin Center for Genomics in Biodiversity Research, Königin-Luise-Straβe 6-8, D-14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Elizabeth Charlotte Bourne
- Berlin Center for Genomics in Biodiversity Research, Königin-Luise-Straβe 6-8, D-14195, Berlin, Germany.,Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Department of Ecosystem Research, Mϋggelseedamm 301 & 210, D-16775 Stechlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Amy Chiuchiolo
- Montana State University, Department of Land Resources and Environmental Sciences, 334 Leon Johnson Hall, MT 59717, Bozeman, USA
| | - John C Priscu
- Montana State University, Department of Land Resources and Environmental Sciences, 334 Leon Johnson Hall, MT 59717, Bozeman, USA
| | - Hans-Peter Grossart
- Department of Experimental Limnology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Alte Fischerhuette 2, D-16775, Stechlin, Germany. .,Institute for Biochemistry and Biology, Potsdam University, Maulbeerallee 2, 14469, Potsdam, Germany.
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12
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Van den Wyngaert S, Seto K, Rojas-Jimenez K, Kagami M, Grossart HP. A New Parasitic Chytrid, Staurastromyces oculus (Rhizophydiales, Staurastromycetaceae fam. nov.), Infecting the Freshwater Desmid Staurastrum sp. Protist 2017; 168:392-407. [DOI: 10.1016/j.protis.2017.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2017] [Revised: 04/28/2017] [Accepted: 05/04/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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13
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Frenken T, Alacid E, Berger SA, Bourne EC, Gerphagnon M, Grossart HP, Gsell AS, Ibelings BW, Kagami M, Küpper FC, Letcher PM, Loyau A, Miki T, Nejstgaard JC, Rasconi S, Reñé A, Rohrlack T, Rojas-Jimenez K, Schmeller DS, Scholz B, Seto K, Sime-Ngando T, Sukenik A, Van de Waal DB, Van den Wyngaert S, Van Donk E, Wolinska J, Wurzbacher C, Agha R. Integrating chytrid fungal parasites into plankton ecology: research gaps and needs. Environ Microbiol 2017; 19:3802-3822. [DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.13827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2017] [Revised: 06/09/2017] [Accepted: 06/10/2017] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Thijs Frenken
- Department of Aquatic Ecology; Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW), Droevendaalsesteeg 10; Wageningen PB 6708 The Netherlands
| | - Elisabet Alacid
- Departament de Biologia Marina i Oceanografia; Institut de Ciències del Mar (CSIC), Pg. Marítim de la Barceloneta, 37-49; Barcelona 08003 Spain
| | - Stella A. Berger
- Department of Experimental Limnology; Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Alte Fischerhuette 2; Stechlin D-16775 Germany
| | - Elizabeth C. Bourne
- Berlin Center for Genomics in Biodiversity Research, Königin-Luise-Straβe 6-8; Berlin D-14195 Germany
- Department of Ecosystem Research; Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Müggelseedamm 301; Berlin 12587 Germany
| | - Mélanie Gerphagnon
- Department of Ecosystem Research; Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Müggelseedamm 301; Berlin 12587 Germany
| | - Hans-Peter Grossart
- Department of Experimental Limnology; Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Alte Fischerhuette 2; Stechlin D-16775 Germany
- Institute for Biochemistry and Biology, Potsdam University, Maulbeerallee 2; Potsdam D-14476 Germany
| | - Alena S. Gsell
- Department of Aquatic Ecology; Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW), Droevendaalsesteeg 10; Wageningen PB 6708 The Netherlands
| | - Bas W. Ibelings
- Department F.-A. Forel for Environmental and Aquatic Sciences & Institute for Environmental Sciences; University of Geneva, 66 Boulevard Carl Vogt; Geneva 4 CH 1211 Switzerland
| | - Maiko Kagami
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science; Toho University, 2-2-1, Miyama; Funabashi Chiba 274-8510 Japan
| | - Frithjof C. Küpper
- Oceanlab, University of Aberdeen, Main Street; Newburgh Scotland AB41 6AA UK
| | - Peter M. Letcher
- Department of Biological Sciences; The University of Alabama, 300 Hackberry Lane; Tuscaloosa AL 35487 USA
| | - Adeline Loyau
- Department of System Ecotoxicology; Helmholtz Center for Environmental Research - UFZ, Permoserstrasse 15; 04318 Leipzig Germany
- Department of Conservation Biology; Helmholtz Center for Environmental Research - UFZ, Permoserstrasse 15; Leipzig 04318 Germany
- ECOLAB, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS; Toulouse France
| | - Takeshi Miki
- Institute of Oceanography; National Taiwan University, No.1 Section 4, Roosevelt Road; Taipei 10617 Taiwan
- Research Center for Environmental Changes; Academia Sinica, No.128 Section 2, Academia Road, Nankang; Taipei 11529 Taiwan
| | - Jens C. Nejstgaard
- Department of Experimental Limnology; Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Alte Fischerhuette 2; Stechlin D-16775 Germany
| | - Serena Rasconi
- WasserCluster Lunz - Biological Station; Inter-University Centre for Aquatic Ecosystem Research, A-3293 Lunz am See; Austria
| | - Albert Reñé
- Departament de Biologia Marina i Oceanografia; Institut de Ciències del Mar (CSIC), Pg. Marítim de la Barceloneta, 37-49; Barcelona 08003 Spain
| | - Thomas Rohrlack
- Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management; Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432, Ås; Norway
| | - Keilor Rojas-Jimenez
- Department of Experimental Limnology; Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Alte Fischerhuette 2; Stechlin D-16775 Germany
- Universidad Latina de Costa Rica, Campus San Pedro, Apdo; San Jose 10138-1000 Costa Rica
| | - Dirk S. Schmeller
- Department of Conservation Biology; Helmholtz Center for Environmental Research - UFZ, Permoserstrasse 15; Leipzig 04318 Germany
- ECOLAB, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS; Toulouse France
| | - Bettina Scholz
- BioPol ehf, Einbúastig 2, Skagaströnd 545; Iceland
- Faculty of Natural Resource Sciences; University of Akureyri, Borgir v. Nordurslod; Akureyri IS 600 Iceland
| | - Kensuke Seto
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science; Toho University, 2-2-1, Miyama; Funabashi Chiba 274-8510 Japan
- Sugadaira Montane Research Center; University of Tsukuba, 1278-294, Sugadaira-Kogen; Ueda, Nagano, 386-2204 Japan
| | - Télesphore Sime-Ngando
- Université Clermont Auvergne, UMR CNRS 6023 LMGE, Laboratoire Microorganismes: Génome et Environnement (LMGE); Campus Universitaire des Cézeaux, Impasse Amélie Murat 1, CS 60026, Aubière, 63178 France
| | - Assaf Sukenik
- Kinneret Limnological Laboratory; Israel Oceanographic & Limnological Research, P.O.Box 447; Migdal, 14950 Israel
| | - Dedmer B. Van de Waal
- Department of Aquatic Ecology; Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW), Droevendaalsesteeg 10; Wageningen PB 6708 The Netherlands
| | - Silke Van den Wyngaert
- Department of Experimental Limnology; Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Alte Fischerhuette 2; Stechlin D-16775 Germany
| | - Ellen Van Donk
- Department of Aquatic Ecology; Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW), Droevendaalsesteeg 10; Wageningen PB 6708 The Netherlands
- Department of Biology; University of Utrecht, Padualaan 8; Utrecht TB 3508 The Netherlands
| | - Justyna Wolinska
- Department of Ecosystem Research; Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Müggelseedamm 301; Berlin 12587 Germany
- Institute of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, Königin-Luise-Straβe 1-3; Berlin, 14195 Germany
| | - Christian Wurzbacher
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences; University of Gothenburg, Box 461; Göteborg, 405 30 Sweden
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, Box 461; Göteborg, SE-405 30 Sweden
| | - Ramsy Agha
- Department of Ecosystem Research; Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Müggelseedamm 301; Berlin 12587 Germany
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Abstract
The diversity and abundance of zoosporic true fungi have been analyzed recently using fungal sequence libraries and advances in molecular methods, such as high-throughput sequencing. This review focuses on four evolutionary primitive true fungal phyla: the Aphelidea, Chytridiomycota, Neocallimastigomycota, and Rosellida (Cryptomycota), most species of which are not polycentric or mycelial (filamentous), rather they tend to be primarily monocentric (unicellular). Zoosporic fungi appear to be both abundant and diverse in many aquatic habitats around the world, with abundance often exceeding other fungal phyla in these habitats, and numerous novel genetic sequences identified. Zoosporic fungi are able to survive extreme conditions, such as high and extremely low pH; however, more work remains to be done. They appear to have important ecological roles as saprobes in decomposition of particulate organic substrates, pollen, plant litter, and dead animals; as parasites of zooplankton and algae; as parasites of vertebrate animals (such as frogs); and as symbionts in the digestive tracts of mammals. Some chytrids cause economically important diseases of plants and animals. They regulate sizes of phytoplankton populations. Further metagenomics surveys of aquatic ecosystems are expected to enlarge our knowledge of the diversity of true zoosporic fungi. Coupled with studies on their functional ecology, we are moving closer to unraveling the role of zoosporic fungi in carbon cycling and the impact of climate change on zoosporic fungal populations.
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