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Jiménez-Pérez A, Fernández-Fariña S, Pedrido R, García-Tojal J. Desulfurization of thiosemicarbazones: the role of metal ions and biological implications. J Biol Inorg Chem 2024; 29:3-31. [PMID: 38148423 DOI: 10.1007/s00775-023-02037-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 12/28/2023]
Abstract
Thiosemicarbazones are biologically active substances whose structural formula is formed by an azomethine, an hydrazine, and a thioamide fragments, to generate a R2C=N-NR-C(=S)-NR2 backbone. These compounds often act as ligands to generate highly stable metal-organic complexes. In certain experimental conditions, however, thiosemicarbazones undergo reactions leading to the cleavage of the chain. Sometimes, the breakage involves desulfurization processes. The present work summarizes the different chemical factors that influence the desulfurization reactions of thiosemicarbazones, such as pH, the presence of oxidant reactants or the establishment of redox processes as those electrochemically induced, the effects of the solvent, the temperature, and the electromagnetic radiation. Many of these reactions require coordination of thiosemicarbazones to metal ions, even those present in the intracellular environment. The nature of the products generated in these reactions, their detection in vivo and in vitro, together with the relevance for the biological activity of these compounds, mainly as antineoplastic agents, is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alondra Jiménez-Pérez
- Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Burgos, 09001, Burgos, Spain
| | - Sandra Fernández-Fariña
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica, Facultade de Química, Campus Vida, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Rosa Pedrido
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica, Facultade de Química, Campus Vida, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
| | - Javier García-Tojal
- Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Burgos, 09001, Burgos, Spain.
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Heffeter P, Pape VFS, Enyedy ÉA, Keppler BK, Szakacs G, Kowol CR. Anticancer Thiosemicarbazones: Chemical Properties, Interaction with Iron Metabolism, and Resistance Development. Antioxid Redox Signal 2019; 30:1062-1082. [PMID: 29334758 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2017.7487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE During the past decades, thiosemicarbazones were clinically developed for a variety of diseases, including tuberculosis, viral infections, malaria, and cancer. With regard to malignant diseases, the class of α-N-heterocyclic thiosemicarbazones, and here especially 3-aminopyridine-2-carboxaldehyde thiosemicarbazone (Triapine), was intensively developed in multiple clinical phase I/II trials. Recent Advances: Very recently, two new derivatives, namely COTI-2 and di-2-pyridylketone 4-cyclohexyl-4-methyl-3-thiosemicarbazone (DpC) have entered phase I evaluation. Based on the strong metal-chelating/metal-interacting properties of thiosemicarbazones, interference with the cellular iron (and copper) homeostasis is assumed to play an important role in their biological activity. CRITICAL ISSUES In this review, we summarize and analyze the data on the interaction of (α-N-heterocyclic) thiosemicarbazones with iron, with the special aim of bridging the current knowledge on their mode of action from chemistry to (cell) biology. In addition, we highlight the difference to classical iron(III) chelators such as desferrioxamine (DFO), which are used for the treatment of iron overload. FUTURE DIRECTIONS We want to emphasize that thiosemicarbazones are not solely removing iron from the cells/organism. In contrast, they should be considered as iron-interacting drugs influencing diverse biological pathways in a complex and multi-faceted mode of action. Consequently, in addition to the discussion of physicochemical properties (e.g., complex stability, redox activity), this review contains an overview on the diversity of cellular thiosemicarbazone targets and drug resistance mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Heffeter
- 1 Department of Medicine I, Institute of Cancer Research, Comprehensive Cancer Center of the Medical University, Medical University of Vienna , Vienna, Austria .,2 Research Cluster "Translational Cancer Therapy Research," Vienna, Austria
| | - Veronika F S Pape
- 3 Institute of Enzymology , Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary .,4 Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University , Budapest, Hungary
| | - Éva A Enyedy
- 5 Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Szeged , Szeged, Hungary
| | - Bernhard K Keppler
- 2 Research Cluster "Translational Cancer Therapy Research," Vienna, Austria .,6 Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna , Vienna, Austria
| | - Gergely Szakacs
- 1 Department of Medicine I, Institute of Cancer Research, Comprehensive Cancer Center of the Medical University, Medical University of Vienna , Vienna, Austria .,3 Institute of Enzymology , Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Christian R Kowol
- 2 Research Cluster "Translational Cancer Therapy Research," Vienna, Austria .,6 Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna , Vienna, Austria
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Lane DJR, Mills TM, Shafie NH, Merlot AM, Saleh Moussa R, Kalinowski DS, Kovacevic Z, Richardson DR. Expanding horizons in iron chelation and the treatment of cancer: role of iron in the regulation of ER stress and the epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2014; 1845:166-81. [PMID: 24472573 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2014.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2013] [Accepted: 01/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Cancer is a major public health issue and, despite recent advances, effective clinical management remains elusive due to intra-tumoural heterogeneity and therapeutic resistance. Iron is a trace element integral to a multitude of metabolic processes, including DNA synthesis and energy transduction. Due to their generally heightened proliferative potential, cancer cells have a greater metabolic demand for iron than normal cells. As such, iron metabolism represents an important "Achilles' heel" for cancer that can be targeted by ligands that bind and sequester intracellular iron. Indeed, novel thiosemicarbazone chelators that act by a "double punch" mechanism to both bind intracellular iron and promote redox cycling reactions demonstrate marked potency and selectivity in vitro and in vivo against a range of tumours. The general mechanisms by which iron chelators selectively target tumour cells through the sequestration of intracellular iron fall into the following categories: (1) inhibition of cellular iron uptake/promotion of iron mobilisation; (2) inhibition of ribonucleotide reductase, the rate-limiting, iron-containing enzyme for DNA synthesis; (3) induction of cell cycle arrest; (4) promotion of localised and cytotoxic reactive oxygen species production by copper and iron complexes of thiosemicarbazones (e.g., Triapine(®) and Dp44mT); and (5) induction of metastasis and tumour suppressors (e.g., NDRG1 and p53, respectively). Emerging evidence indicates that chelators can further undermine the cancer phenotype via inhibiting the epithelial-mesenchymal transition that is critical for metastasis and by modulating ER stress. This review explores the "expanding horizons" for iron chelators in selectively targeting cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darius J R Lane
- Molecular Pharmacology and Pathology Program, Discipline of Pathology and Bosch Institute, Blackburn Building (D06), The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Thomas M Mills
- Molecular Pharmacology and Pathology Program, Discipline of Pathology and Bosch Institute, Blackburn Building (D06), The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Nurul H Shafie
- Molecular Pharmacology and Pathology Program, Discipline of Pathology and Bosch Institute, Blackburn Building (D06), The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Angelica M Merlot
- Molecular Pharmacology and Pathology Program, Discipline of Pathology and Bosch Institute, Blackburn Building (D06), The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Rayan Saleh Moussa
- Molecular Pharmacology and Pathology Program, Discipline of Pathology and Bosch Institute, Blackburn Building (D06), The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Danuta S Kalinowski
- Molecular Pharmacology and Pathology Program, Discipline of Pathology and Bosch Institute, Blackburn Building (D06), The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Zaklina Kovacevic
- Molecular Pharmacology and Pathology Program, Discipline of Pathology and Bosch Institute, Blackburn Building (D06), The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Des R Richardson
- Molecular Pharmacology and Pathology Program, Discipline of Pathology and Bosch Institute, Blackburn Building (D06), The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia.
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Chitambar CR, Antholine WE. Iron-targeting antitumor activity of gallium compounds and novel insights into triapine(®)-metal complexes. Antioxid Redox Signal 2013; 18:956-72. [PMID: 22900955 PMCID: PMC3557436 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2012.4880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Despite advances made in the treatment of cancer, a significant number of patients succumb to this disease every year. Hence, there is a great need to develop new anticancer agents. RECENT ADVANCES Emerging data show that malignant cells have a greater requirement for iron than normal cells do and that proteins involved in iron import, export, and storage may be altered in cancer cells. Therefore, strategies to perturb these iron-dependent steps in malignant cells hold promise for the treatment of cancer. Recent studies show that gallium compounds and metal-thiosemicarbazone complexes inhibit tumor cell growth by targeting iron homeostasis, including iron-dependent ribonucleotide reductase. Chemical similarities of gallium(III) with iron(III) enable the former to mimic the latter and interpose itself in critical iron-dependent steps in cellular proliferation. Newer gallium compounds have emerged with additional mechanisms of action. In clinical trials, the first-generation-compound gallium nitrate has exhibited activity against bladder cancer and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, while the thiosemicarbazone Triapine(®) has demonstrated activity against other tumors. CRITICAL ISSUES Novel gallium compounds with greater cytotoxicity and a broader spectrum of antineoplastic activity than gallium nitrate should continue to be developed. FUTURE DIRECTIONS The antineoplastic activity and toxicity of the existing novel gallium compounds and thiosemicarbazone-metal complexes should be tested in animal tumor models and advanced to Phase I and II clinical trials. Future research should identify biologic markers that predict tumor sensitivity to gallium compounds. This will help direct gallium-based therapy to cancer patients who are most likely to benefit from it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher R Chitambar
- Division of Hematology & Oncology, Department of Medicine, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53226, USA.
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Dilworth JR, Hueting R. Metal complexes of thiosemicarbazones for imaging and therapy. Inorganica Chim Acta 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ica.2012.02.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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Targeting the Large Subunit of Human Ribonucleotide Reductase for Cancer Chemotherapy. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2011; 4:1328-1354. [PMID: 23115527 PMCID: PMC3483043 DOI: 10.3390/ph4101328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Ribonucleotide reductase (RR) is a crucial enzyme in de novo DNA synthesis, where it catalyses the rate determining step of dNTP synthesis. RRs consist of a large subunit called RR1 (α), that contains two allosteric sites and one catalytic site, and a small subunit called RR2 (β), which houses a tyrosyl free radical essential for initiating catalysis. The active form of mammalian RR is an αnβm hetero oligomer. RR inhibitors are cytotoxic to proliferating cancer cells. In this brief review we will discuss the three classes of RR, the catalytic mechanism of RR, the regulation of the dNTP pool, the substrate selection, the allosteric activation, inactivation by ATP and dATP, and the nucleoside drugs that target RR. We will also discuss possible strategies for developing a new class of drugs that disrupts the RR assembly.
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