Gastrodin inhibits cell proliferation in vascular smooth muscle cells and attenuates neointima formation in vivo

Gastrodin exerts perioperative myocardial protection by improving mitophagy through the PINK1/Parkin pathway to reduce myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury

BACKGROUND

Although blood flow is restored after treatment of myocardial infarction (MI), myocardial ischemia and reperfusion (I/R) can cause cardiac injury, which is a leading cause of heart failure. Gastrodin (GAS) exerts protective effects against brain, heart, and kidney I/R. However, its pharmacological mechanism in myocardial I/R injury (MIRI) remains unclear.

PURPOSE

GAS regulates autophagy in various diseases, such as acute hepatitis, vascular dementia, and stroke. We hypothesized that GAS could repair mitochondrial damage and regulate autophagy to protect against MIRI.

STUDY DESIGN

Male C57BL/6 mice and H9C2 cells were subjected to I/R and hypoxia-reoxygenation (H/R) injury after GAS administration, respectively, to assess the impact of GAS on cardiomyocyte phenotypes, heart, and mitochondrial structure and function. The effect of GAS on cardiac function and mitochondrial structure in patients undergoing cardiac surgery has been observed in clinical practice.

METHODS

The effects of GAS on cardiac structure and function, mitochondrial structure, and expression of related molecules in an animal model of MIRI were evaluated using immunohistochemical staining, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), transmission electron microscopy, western blotting, and gene sequencing. Its effects on the morphological, molecular, and functional phenotypes of cardiomyocytes undergoing H/R were observed using immunohistochemical staining, real-time quantitative PCR, and western blotting.

RESULTS

GAS significantly reduces myocardial infarct size and improves cardiac function in MIRI mice in animal models and increases cardiomyocyte viability and reduces cardiomyocyte damage in cellular models. In clinical practice, myocardial injury was alleviated with better cardiac function in patients undergoing cardiac surgery after the application of GAS; improvements in mitochondria and autophagy activation were also observed. GAS primarily exerts cardioprotective effects through activation of the PINK1/Parkin pathway, which promotes mitochondrial autophagy to clear damaged mitochondria.

CONCLUSION

GAS can promote mitophagy and preserve mitochondria through PINK1/Parkin, thus indicating its tremendous potential as an effective perioperative myocardial protective agent.

A biomimetic tri-phasic scaffold with spatiotemporal patterns of gastrodin to regulate hierarchical tissue-based vascular regeneration

Clinical use of small-diameter vascular grafts remains a challenging issue in neovessel regeneration in view of thrombosis and intimal hyperplasia. Developing a vascular graft with structure and function similar to those of the native vessels necessitates a major direction of vascular tissue regeneration. Thus, this study sought to design and fabricate a range of tri-phasic scaffolds (0, 2, and 5 wt% gastrodin-polyurethane (PU)) with spatiotemporally defined structure and gastrodin-release for regulating the highly coordinated processes in growth of the intima and media. While the small pores of inner layer guided infiltration of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), the bigger pores of medial layer could offer smooth muscle cell (SMC)-friendly habitat, and external fibers conferred adequate mechanical properties. Correspondingly, spatial distribution and differential regulation of key proteins in HUVECs and SMCs were mediated by hierarchical release of gastrodin, of which rapid release in inner layer elicited enhanced HUVEC proliferation and migration against those of the SMC via activated endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) signal. Of note, superior anti-coagulation was reflected in 2 wt% gastrodin-PU ex vivo extracorporeal blood circulation experiment. After in vivo implantation for 12 weeks, there was no formation of obvious thrombosis and intimal hyperplasia in 2 wt% gastrodin-PU. The scaffold maintained high patency and improved vascular remodeling, including the formation of thin endothelialization in lumen and dense extracellular matrix deposition in medial layer. Taken together, the results demonstrate the positive function of hierarchical releasing system that responded to tri-phasic structure, which not only suppressed intimal thickening but also tightly controlled tissue regeneration.

Gastrodin: a comprehensive pharmacological review

Tianma is the dried tuber of Gastrodia elata Blume (G. elata), which is frequently utilized in clinical practice as a traditional Chinese medicine. Gastrodin (GAS) is the main active ingredient of Tianma, which has good pharmacological activity. Therefore, for the first time, this review focused on the extraction, synthesis, pharmacological effects, and derivatives of GAS and to investigate additional development options for GAS. The use of microorganisms to create GAS is a promising method. GAS has good efficacy in the treatment of neurological diseases, cardiovascular diseases, endocrine diseases, and liver diseases. GAS has significant anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, neuroprotective, vascular protective, blood sugar lowering, lipid-regulating, analgesic, anticancer, and antiviral effects. The mechanism involves various signaling pathways such as Nrf2, NF-κB, PI3K/AKT, and AMPK. In addition, the derivatives of GAS and biomaterials synthesized by GAS and PU suggested a broader application of GAS. The research on GAS is thoroughly summarized in this paper, which has useful applications for tackling a variety of disorders and exhibits good development value.

Traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, applications, and quality control of Gastrodia elata Blume: A comprehensive review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Gastrodia elata Blume (G. elata) has a long historical application in Asian countries and its tubers, seeds, and stalks are capable of being utilized for medicine, food, or health care products.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

This study aimed to offer a systematic and up-to-date analysis of the current review of the G. elata research advances in traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, applications, and quality control, as well as a scientific reference for the development and utilization of this plant.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Electronic databases including PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, SciFinder, and CNKI were used for the collection of publications on G. elata. The following keywords of G. elata were used truncated with other relevant topic terms, such as phenolic compounds, polysaccharides, glycosides, neuroprotection, learning and memory improvement effects, cardioprotection, applications, and quality control.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Approximately 134 chemical components mainly categorizing as phenolic compounds, polysaccharides, glycosides, organic acids, and sterols were reported from this plant. Moreover, preclinical studies indicated that G. elata performs several functions, including neuroprotection, learning and memory improvement effects, cardioprotection, vaso-modulatory effect, anti-depression, anti-cancer, and other effects. Currently, G. elata has been widely applied to clinics and foods. The available literature shows that the quality of G. elata might be affected by factors such as origin, fungus, and harvest time, which will have an impact on the drug efficacy. According to past research, G. elata is a potential medicinal and edible plant with several active components and pharmacological activity that has a high application value in medicine and the food business. Nevertheless, few studies have concentrated on characterization of polysaccharides structure and study of non-medicinal parts, implying that further comprehensive research on its polysaccharides structure and non-medicinal parts is critical for full utilization of resources of G. elata.

Gastrodin and Vascular Dementia: Advances and Current Perspectives

Gastrodia elata, a traditional Chinese medicine, has been widely used since ancient times to treat diseases such as dizziness, epilepsy, stroke, and memory loss. Gastrodin, one of the active components of Gastrodia elata, has been used in the treatment of migraine, epilepsy, Parkinson's disease, dementia, and depression in recent years. It can improve cognitive function and related neuropsychiatric symptoms through various effects and is considered as a promising treatment for dementia. Vascular dementia is a kind of severe cognitive impairment syndrome caused by vascular factors, and it is the dementia syndrome with the largest number of patients besides Alzheimer's disease. Although there is still a lack of evidence-based explorations, the paper reviewed the mechanism and methods of gastrodin in the treatment of vascular dementia, providing a reference for clinical therapy.

Immunomodulatory Mechanism and Potential Therapies for Perinatal Hypoxic-Ischemic Brain Damage

Hypoxia-ischemia (HI) is one of the most common causes of death and disability in neonates. Currently, the only available licensed treatment for perinatal HI is hypothermia. However, it alone is not sufficient to prevent the brain injuries and/or neurological dysfunction related to HI. Perinatal HI can activate the immune system and trigger the peripheral and central responses which involve the immune cell activation, increase in production of immune mediators and release of reactive oxygen species. There is mounting evidence indicating that regulation of immune response can effectively rescue the outcomes of brain injury in experimental perinatal HI models such as Rice-Vannucci model of newborn hypoxic-ischemic brain damage (HIBD), local transient cerebral ischemia and reperfusion model, perinatal asphyxia model, and intrauterine hypoxia model. This review summarizes the many studies about immunomodulatory mechanisms and therapies for HI. It highlights the important actions of some widely documented therapeutic agents for effective intervening of HI related brain damage, namely, HIBD, such as EPO, FTY720, Minocycline, Gastrodin, Breviscapine, Milkvetch etc. In this connection, it has been reported that the ameboid microglial cells featured prominently in the perinatal brain represent the key immune cells involved in HIBD. To this end, drugs, chemical agents and herbal compounds which have the properties to suppress microglia activation have recently been extensively explored and identified as potential therapeutic agents or strategies for amelioration of neonatal HIBD.

Plant-Derived Products for Treatment of Vascular Intima Hyperplasia Selectively Inhibit Vascular Smooth Muscle Cell Functions

Natural products are used widely for preventing intimal hyperplasia (IH), a common cardiovascular disease. Four different cells initiate and progress IH, namely, vascular smooth muscle, adventitial and endothelial cells, and circulation or bone marrow-derived cells. Vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) play a critical role in initiation and development of intimal thickening and formation of neointimal hyperplasia. In this review, we describe the different originating cells involved in vascular IH and emphasize the effect of different natural products on inhibiting abnormal cellular functions, such as VSMC proliferation and migration. We further present a classification for the different natural products like phenols, flavonoids, terpenes, and alkaloids that suppress VSMC growth. Abnormal VSMC physiology involves disturbance in MAPKs, PI3K/AKT, JAK-STAT, FAK, and NF-κB signal pathways. Most of the natural isolate studies have revealed G1/S phase of cell cycle arrest, decreased ROS production, induced cell apoptosis, restrained migration, and downregulated collagen deposition. It is necessary to screen optimal drugs from natural sources that preferentially inhibit VSMC rather than vascular endothelial cell growth to prevent early IH, restenosis following graft implantation, and atherosclerotic diseases.

Gastrodin Protects Cardiomyocytes from Anoxia/Reoxygenation Injury by 14-3-3η

Gastrodin (GAS) is the major component isolated from the rhizome of the Chinese traditional medicinal herb “Tianma.” Many clinical studies have found that GAS protects cardiomyocytes in cardiovascular diseases, although the effects and underlying mechanisms on cardiovascular anoxia/reoxygenation (A/R) injury remain unknown. This study is aimed at exploring the effect of gastrodin on cardiomyocytes in A/R injury. Our results suggested that the protective effect of GAS on cardiomyocytes is associated with upregulated 14-3-3η levels. Pretreatment with GAS could increase the cell viability and decrease the activities of creatine phosphokinase (CPK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH). GAS could also reduce reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, inhibit mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) opening, alter the maintenance of the mitochondrial membrane potential (∆Ψm), decrease the activation of caspase-3, and finally restrain cell apoptosis. Downregulating 14-3-3η levels by transfection with siRNA14-3-3η clearly attenuated the protective effect of GAS on cardiomyocytes in A/R injury.

Screening Mammalian Cochlear Hair Cells to Identify Critical Processes in Aminoglycoside-Mediated Damage

There is considerable interest in discovering drugs with the potential to protect inner ear hair cells (HCs) from damage. One means of discovery is to screen compound libraries. Excellent screening protocols have been developed employing cell lines derived from the cochlea and zebrafish larvae. However, these do not address the differentiated mammalian hair cell. We have developed a screening method employing micro-explants of the mammalian organ of Corti (oC) to identify compounds with the ability to influence aminoglycoside-induced HC loss. The assay is based on short segments of the neonatal mouse oC, containing ~80 HCs which selectively express green fluorescent protein (GFP). This allows the screening of hundreds of potential protectants in an assay that includes both inner and outer HCs. This review article describes various screening methods, including the micro-explant assay. In addition, two micro-explant screening studies in which antioxidant and kinase inhibitor libraries were evaluated are reviewed. The results from these screens are related to current models of HC damage and protection.

An Optimized and Sensitive Pharmacokinetic Quantitative Method of Investigating Gastrodin, Parishin, and Parishin B, C and E in Beagle Dog Plasma using LC-MS/MS after Intragastric Administration of Tall Gastrodia Capsules

Gastrodia elata Blume, called Tianma in China, has been widely used to treat headaches, convulsions and epilepsy for thousands of years. In the present study, a series of optimizations were employed to develop a rapid, sensitive, and reliable high-performance liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry method, which was then used for the simultaneous determination of gastrodin, parishin, parishin B, parishin C and parishin E in beagle dog plasma after intragastric administration of tall Gastrodia capsules (Tianma brand). The chromatographic separation was achieved on a C₁₈ column with gradient elution by using a mixture of 0.4% formic acid aqueous solution and acetonitrile as the mobile phase at a flow rate of 0.15 mL/min. A tandem mass spectrometric detection was conducted using multiple-reaction monitoring (MRM) via electrospray ionization (ESI) source in negative ionization mode. Samples were pre-treated by a single-step protein precipitation with methanol, and bergenin was used as internal standard (IS). Under the optimized conditions, the lower limit of quantification (LLOQ) was 0.10 ng/mL for gastrodin, 0.40 ng/mL for parishin B, 0.02 ng/mL for parishin E and 0.20 ng/mL for parishin and parishin C, all of which previously were the highest levels of sensitivity. The methods were optimized for selectivity, calibration curves, accuracy and precision. Extraction recoveries, matrix effects and stability were within acceptable ranges. Pharmacokinetic parameters of the tested substances were also quantitatively determined. Finally, a possible metabolic pathway was induced based on correlations obtained from quantitative and qualitative data analysis in vivo.

Gastrodin Inhibits Store-Operated Ca2+ Entry and Alleviates Cardiac Hypertrophy

Cardiac hypertrophy is a major risk factor for heart failure, which are among the leading causes of human death. Gastrodin is a small molecule that has been used clinically to treat neurological and vascular diseases for many years without safety issues. In the present study, we examined protective effect of gastrodin against cardiac hypertrophy and explored the underlying mechanism. Phenylephrine and angiotensin II were used to induce cardiac hypertrophy in a mouse model and a cultured cardiomyocyte model. Gastrodin was found to alleviate the cardiac hypertrophy in both models. Mechanistically, gastrodin attenuated the store-operated Ca²⁺ entry (SOCE) by reducing the expression of STIM1 and Orai1, two key proteins in SOCE, in animal models as well as in cultured cardiomyocyte model. Furthermore, suppressing SOCE by RO2959, Orai1-siRNAs or STIM1-siRNAs markedly attenuated the phenylephrine-induced hypertrophy in cultured cardiomyocyte model. Together, these results showed that gastrodin inhibited cardiac hypertrophy and it also reduced the SOCE via its action on the expression of STIM1 and Orai1. Furthermore, suppression of SOCE could reduce the phenylephrine-induced cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, suggesting that SOCE-STIM1-Orai1 is located upstream of hypertrophy.

Vasodilatory effects and underlying mechanisms of the ethyl acetate extracts from Gastrodia elata

The objective of this study was to assess the ethyl acetate extracts of Gastrodia elata Blume (GEB) on vascular tone and the mechanisms involved. GEB was extracted with 95% EtOH followed by a further extraction with ethyl acetate. The effects of GEB and its ingredients on the isometric tensions of the aortic rings from rats were measured. The ethyl acetate extract of GEB induced a vasodilatory effect on rat aorta, which was partially dependent on endothelium. Four chemical compounds isolated from GEB were identified as 3,4-dihydroxybenzaldehyde (DB), 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde (HB), 4-methoxybenzyl alcohol (MA), and 4,4'-dihydroxydiphenyl methane (DM), respectively. All of these compounds induced vasodilatations, which were dependent on the endothelium to different degrees. After pretreatment with N^ω-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester, indomethacin, or methylene blue, the vasodilatations induced by DB, HB, and MA were significantly decreased. In addition, the contractions of the rat aortic rings due to Ca²⁺ influx and intracellular Ca²⁺ release were also inhibited by DM. Furthermore, the administration of DB significantly enhanced the productions of nitric oxide (NO) and the activities of the endothelial NO synthase in aorta and in endothelial cells. Thus, GEB may play an important role in the amelioration of hypertension by modulating vascular tones.

Anti-atherosclerotic plants which modulate the phenotype of vascular smooth muscle cells

BACKGROUND

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the leading cause of global death, with atherosclerosis being a major contributor to this mortality. Several mechanisms are implicated in the pathogenesis of this disease. A key element in the development and progression of atherosclerotic lesions is the phenotype of vascular smooth muscle cells. Under pathophysiologic conditions such as injury, these cells switch from a contractile to a synthetic phenotype that often possesses high proliferative and migratory capacities.

PURPOSE

Despite major advances made in the management and treatment of atherosclerosis, mortality associated with this disease remains high. This mandates that other approaches be sought. Herbal medicine, especially for the treatment of CVD, has been gaining more attention in recent years. This is in no small part due to the evidence-based values associated with the consumption of many plants as well as the relatively cheaper prices, easier access and conventional folk medicine "inherited" over generations. Sections: In this review, we provide a brief introduction about the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis then we highlight the role of vascular smooth muscle cells in this disease, especially when a phenotypic switch of these cells arises. We then thoroughly discuss the various plants that show potentially beneficial effects as anti-atherosclerotic, with prime attention given to herbs and plants that inhibit the phenotypic switch of vascular smooth muscle cells.

CONCLUSION

Accumulating evidence provides the justification for the use of botanicals in the treatment or prevention of atherosclerosis. However, further studies, especially clinical ones, are warranted to better define several pharmacological parameters of these herbs, such as toxicity, tolerability, and efficacy.

Proliferation-enhancing effects of gastrodin on RSC96 Schwann cells by regulating ERK1/2 and PI3K signaling pathways

The proliferation and migration of Schwann cells (SCs) are essential in the process of peripheral nerve repair. A large amount of studies focused on the promotion of the growth of SCs for cell based therapy. Gastrodin (GAS), the main constituent of a Chinese traditional herbal medicine named Gastrodia elata Blume, has been reported to be associated with neuroprotective properties. Besides, GAS activated MAPK and PI3K signaling pathways which are often involved in growth of nerve cells were also reported. Based on the hypothesis that GAS may have an effect on SCs growth, we studied the effect of GAS on rat RSC96 Schwann cells (SCs) and further explored the underlying mechanism. Various concentration of GAS (0μM, 50μM, 100μM, and 200μM) was used for treatment of RSC96 SCs, with the cell proliferation and gene expression of several neurotrophic factors to be detected. Regulation of MAPK and PI3K signaling pathways were assayed by detecting phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and Akt. The results showed that GAS could effectively promote proliferation of RSC96 SCs in a dose- and time-dependent manner. The best performance was obtained at the concentration of 200μM. Exploration of the underlying mechanism showed that GAS probably affects SCs metabolism through inhibiting ERK1/2 phosphorylation and activating Akt phosphorylation in RSC96 SCs. This study may provide reference for its application in treatment of peripheral nerve injuries.

Prolonged oral administration of Gastrodia elata extract improves spatial learning and memory of scopolamine-treated rats

Gastrodia elata (GE) is traditionally used for treatment of various disorders including neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease. To investigate the neuroprotective effect of GE, amyloid-β peptide (Aβ)-treated PC12 cells were cultured with GE aqueous extract. In vitro assay demonstrated that 50 µM of pre-aggregated Aβ was lethal to about a half portion of PC12 cells and that Aβ aggregate-induced cell death was significantly decreased with GE treatment at ≤10 mg/mL in a dose-dependent manner. To further examine in vivo cognitive-improving effects, an artificial amnesic animal model, scopolamine-injected Sprague-Dawley rats, were orally administered the extract for 6 weeks followed by behavioral tests (the passive avoidance test and Morris water maze test). The results showed that an acute treatment with scopolamine (1 mg/kg of body weight) effectively induced memory impairment in normal rats and that the learning and memory capability of scopolamine-treated rats improved after prolonged administration of GE extract (50, 250 and 500 mg/kg of body weight for 6 weeks). These findings suggest that a GE regimen may potentially ameliorate learning and memory deficits and/or cognitive impairments caused by neuronal cell death.

Analysis and pharmacokinetics studies of gastrodin and p-hydroxybenzyl alcohol in dogs using ultra fast liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method

A simple, sensitive and reliable ultra fast liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (UFLC-ESI-MS/MS) method was developed for simultaneously quantifying gastrodin (p-hydroxy-methyl-phenol-β-d-glucoside) and its metabolite p-hydroxybenzyl alcohol (HBA) in dog plasma. Separation was performed on an ultra fast liquid chromatography (UFLC) system. Detection was carried out on a tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) in multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode via an electrospray ionization (ESI) interface. MRM mode of precursor-product ion transitions was used for gastrodin, HBA and the internal standard (IS, bergeninum) at m/z 285.0→123.0, 123.0→105.0 and 326.9→192.2, respectively. The lower limits of quantification (LLOQ) of this method for both gastrodin and HBA were 1ng/mL, with their linear concentration ranging from 0.001 to 10μg/mL. The methods were validated for selectivity, calibration curves, accuracy and precision, extraction recoveries, matrix effects, carry-over, cross talk, dilution integrity, stability and incurred sample reanalysis (ISR). Using this validated method, pharmacokinetic behaviors of gastrodin and HBA after intragastric administration (ig) of gastrodin to dogs were studied for the first time.

Rosuvastatin suppresses platelet-derived growth factor-BB-induced vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and migration via the MAPK signaling pathway

An imbalance in the proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) is significant in the onset and progression of vascular diseases, including arteriosclerosis and restenosis subsequent to vein grafting or coronary intervention. Rosuvastatin, a selective inhibitor of hydroxymethylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase, has pharmacological properties including the ability to reduce low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C) and very low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (VLDL-C) levels, slow atherosclerosis progression and improve coronary heart disease outcomes. However, little is known concerning the molecular mechanism by which rosuvastatin affects vascular cell dynamics. In this study, we studied the inhibitory role of rosuvastatin on platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB)-induced VSMC proliferation and migration, as well as the molecular mechanisms involved. MTT data showed that rosuvastatin markedly inhibited the proliferation of PDGF-BB-induced VSMCs in a time-dependent manner. VSMCs are able to dedifferentiate into a proliferative phenotype in response to PDGF-BB stimulation; however, rosuvastatin effectively attenuated this phenotype switching. Moreover, we also showed that rosuvastatin significantly suppressed PDGF-BB-induced VSMC migration, which may be a result of its inhibitory effect on the protein expression of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP2) and MMP9. Investigation into the molecular mechanisms involved revealed that rosuvastatin inhibited the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway by downregulating extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and p38 MAPK, although the phosphorylation level of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (c-JNK) was not altered following rosuvastatin treatment. In conclusion, the present study showed that rosuvastatin suppressed PDGF-BB-induced VSMC proliferation and migration, indicating that rosuvastatin has the potential to become a promising therapeutic agent for the treatment of atherosclerosis and restenosis.