Trifluoperazine induces apoptosis through the upregulation of Bax/Bcl‑2 and downregulated phosphorylation of AKT in mesangial cells and improves renal function in lupus nephritis mice

Protopanaxadiol improves lupus nephritis by regulating the PTX3/MAPK/ERK1/2 pathway

Lupus nephritis (LN) is a kidney disease that occurs after systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) affects the kidneys. Pentraxin 3 (PTX3) is highly expressed in the serum of patients with LN. Renal PTX3 deposition is directly related to clinical symptoms such as proteinuria and inflammation. The excessive proliferation of mesangial cells (MCs) is one of the representative pathological changes in the progression of LN, which is closely related to its pathogenesis. Protopanaxadiol (PPD) is the main component of ginsenoside metabolism and has not been reported in LN. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between PTX3 and mesangial cell proliferation and to evaluate the potential role and mechanism of PPD in improving LN. PTX3 is highly expressed in the kidneys of LN patients and LN mice and is positively correlated with renal pathological indicators, including proteinuria and PCNA. The excessive expression of PTX3 facilitated the proliferation of MCs, facilitated the activation of the MAPK/ERK1/2 signaling pathway, and increased the expression of HIF-1α. Further studies showed that PPD can effectively inhibit the abnormal proliferation of MCs with high expression of PTX3 and significantly improve LN symptoms such as proteinuria in MRL/lpr mice. The mechanism may be related to the inhibition of the PTX3/MAPK/ERK1/2 pathway. In this study, both in vitro, in vivo, and clinical sample results show that PTX3 is involved in the regulation of MCs proliferation and the early occurrence of LN. Natural active compound PPD can improve LN by regulating the PTX3/MAPK/ERK1/2 pathway.

Mesangial cell: A hub in lupus nephritis

Lupus nephritis (LN) is a severe renal disease caused by the massive deposition of the immune complexes (ICs) in renal tissue, acting as one of the significant organ manifestations of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and a substantial cause of death in clinical patients. As mesangium is one of the primary sites for IC deposition, mesangial cells (MCs) constantly undergo severe damage, resulting in excessive proliferation and increased extracellular matrix (ECM) production. In addition to playing a role in organizational structure, MCs are closely related to in situ immunomodulation by phagocytosis, antigen-presenting function, and inflammatory effects, aberrantly participating in the tissue-resident immune responses and leading to immune-mediated renal lesions. Notably, such renal-resident immune responses drive a second wave of MC damage, accelerating the development of LN. This review summarized the damage mechanisms and the in situ immune regulation of MCs in LN, facilitating the current drug research for exploring clinical treatment strategies.

Ginsenoside Rg1 can restore hematopoietic function by inhibiting Bax translocation-mediated mitochondrial apoptosis in aplastic anemia

The present study investigated, the anti-apoptotic activity of Ginsenoside Rg1 (Rg1) via inhibition of Bax translocation and the subsequent recovery of hematopoietic function. Mitochondrial apoptosis in bone marrow mononuclear cells (BMNCs) was observed in aplastic anemia (AA) patients. To establish a mouse model of AA, BALB/c mice were transplanted with lymph node cells from DBA/2 donor mice via vein injection after treatment with Co60 γ-radiation. After treatment with Rg1 for 14 days, the peripheral blood and Lin–Sca-1 + c-Kit + (LSK) cell counts of the treated group were increased compared with those of the untreated model mice. In in vivo and in vitro tests of LSKs, Rg1 was found to increase mitochondrial number and the ratio of Bcl-2/Bax and to decrease damage to the mitochondrial inner and outer membranes, the mitochondrial Bax level and the protein levels of mitochondrial apoptosis-related proteins AIF and Cyt-C by decreasing the ROS level. Rg1 also improved the concentration–time curve of MAO and COX and levels of ATP, ADP and AMP in an in vitro test. In addition, high levels of Bax mitochondrial translocation could be corrected by Rg1 treatment. Levels of markers of mitochondrial apoptosis in the Rg1-treated group were significantly better than those in the AA model group, implying that Rg1 might improve hematopoietic stem cells and thereby restore hematopoietic function in AA by suppressing the mitochondrial apoptosis mediated by Bax translocation.

Ma xing shi gan decoction eliminates PM2.5-induced lung injury by reducing pulmonary cell apoptosis through Akt/mTOR/p70S6K pathway in rats

The present study was designed to investigate the anti-apoptosis effect of Ma xing shi gan decoction (MXD) on PM2.5-induced lung injury via protein kinase B (Akt)/mTOR/p70S6K pathway. A UPLC-MS/MS system was introduced for component analysis of MXD. Rats were instilled with PM2.5 solution suspension intratracheally to induce acute lung injury. The rats were then orally administered with MXD (16, 8, and 4 g/kg) once a day for 7 consecutive days. The therapeutic effects of MXD were evaluated by Hematoxylin and Eosin (HE) staining. The apoptotic cell death was analyzed by terminal-deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated nick-end labeling (TUNEL) assay. The alterations in cytochrome c (Cytc) and cleaved-caspase-3 (C-caspase-3) were measured by immunohistochemistry (IHC). The expressions of Bax, B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2), p-Akt, p-mTOR and p-p70S6K were detected by Western blot. In vitro, PM2.5 exposure model was introduced in A549 cell, followed by incubation with MXD-medicated serum. Hoechst staining was used to determine apoptotic rate. The levels of Bax, Bcl-2, p-Akt, p-mTOR and p-p70S6K were detected by Western blot. Our results in vivo indicated that treatment with MXD decreased histopathological changes score, TUNEL-positive cells rate, expressions of Cytc and C-caspase-3. The in vitro results revealed that incubation with MXD-mediated serum decreased apoptotic rate. Both results in vivo and in vitro demonstrated that MXD inhibited pro-apoptotic protein Bax and promoted anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 expression. Likewise, MXD activated Akt/mTOR/p70S6K signal pathway, which was also confirmed by Western immunoblotting. In conclusion, MXD attenuates lung injury and the underlying mechanisms may relate to regulating the apoptosis via Akt/mTOR/p70S6K signaling pathway activation.

Transcriptome signature analysis repurposes trifluoperazine for the treatment of fragile X syndrome in mouse model

Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is a prevailing genetic disorder of intellectual disability and autism. There is no efficacious medication for FXS. Through in silico screening with a public database, computational analysis of transcriptome profile in FXS mouse neurons predicts therapeutic value of an FDA-approved drug trifluoperazine. Systemic administration of low-dose trifluoperazine at 0.05 mg/kg attenuates multiple FXS- and autism-related behavioral symptoms. Moreover, computational analysis of transcriptome alteration caused by trifluoperazine suggests a new mechanism of action against PI3K (Phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase) activity. Consistently, trifluoperazine suppresses PI3K activity and its down-stream targets Akt (protein kinase B) and S6K1 (S6 kinase 1) in neurons. Further, trifluoperazine normalizes the aberrantly elevated activity of Akt and S6K1 and enhanced protein synthesis in FXS mouse. Together, our data demonstrate a promising value of transcriptome-based computation in identification of therapeutic strategy and repurposing drugs for neurological disorders, and suggest trifluoperazine as a potential treatment for FXS.

Qi Ding, Ferzin Sethna et al. perform a computational analysis of the transcriptome profile of Fmr1^−/− neurons and identify trifluoperazine as potential therapeutic agent against Fragile X Syndrome. Next, they show that low doses of trifluoperazine ameliorate some of the behavioral and molecular phenotypes present in Fmr1^−/− mice.

Trifluoperazine, an Antipsychotic Drug, Effectively Reduces Drug Resistance in Cisplatin-Resistant Urothelial Carcinoma Cells via Suppressing Bcl-xL: An In Vitro and In Vivo Study

Cisplatin-based chemotherapy is the primary treatment for metastatic bladder urothelial carcinoma (UC). Most patients inevitably encounter drug resistance and resultant disease relapse. Reduced apoptosis plays a critical role in chemoresistance. Trifluoperazine (TFP), an antipsychotic agent, has demonstrated antitumor effects on various cancers. This study investigated the efficacy of TFP in inhibiting cisplatin-resistant bladder UC and explored the underlying mechanism. Our results revealed that cisplatin-resistant UC cells (T24/R) upregulated the antiapoptotic factor, B-cell lymphoma-extra large (Bcl-xL). Knockdown of Bcl-xL by siRNA resensitized cisplatin-resistant cells to the cisplatin cytotoxic effect. TFP (10–45 μM) alone elicited dose-dependent cytotoxicity, apoptosis, and G0/G1 arrest on T24/R cells. Co-treatment of TFP potentiated cisplatin-induced cytotoxicity in T24/R cells. The phenomenon that TFP alleviated cisplatin resistance to T24/R was accompanied with concurrent suppression of Bcl-xL. In vivo models confirmed that TFP alone effectively suppressed the T24/R xenograft in nude mice. TFP co-treatment enhanced the antitumor effect of cisplatin on the T24/R xenograft. Our results demonstrated that TFP effectively inhibited cisplatin-resistant UCs and circumvented cisplatin resistance with concurrent Bcl-xL downregulation. These findings provide a promising insight to develop a therapeutic strategy for chemoresistant UCs.

The Combined Use of Phenothiazines and Statins Strongly Affects Doxorubicin-Resistance, Apoptosis, and Cox-2 Activity in Colon Cancer Cells

Since none of the multidrug resistance (MDR) modulators tested so far found their way into clinic, a novel approach to overcome the MDR of cancer cells has been proposed. The combined use of two MDR modulators of dissimilar mechanisms of action was suggested to benefit from the synergy between them. The effect of three phenothiazine derivatives that were used as single agents and in combination with simvastatin on cell growth, apoptosis induction, activity, and expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in doxorubicin-resistant colon cancer cells (LoVo/Dx) was investigated. Treatment of LoVo/Dx cells by phenothiazine derivatives combined with simvastatin resulted in an increase of doxorubicin cytotoxicity and its intracellular accumulation as compared to the treatment with phenothiazine derivatives that were used as single agents. Similarly, LoVo/Dx cells treated with two-component mixture of modulators showed the reduced expression of ABCB1 (P-glycoprotein) transporter and COX-2 enzyme, both on mRNA and protein level. Reduced expression of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 protein and increased expression of pro-apoptotic Bax were also detected. Additionally, COX-2 activity was diminished, and caspase-3 activity was increased to a higher extent by phenothiazine derivative:simvastatin mixtures than by phenothiazine derivatives themselves. Therefore, the introduction of simvastatin strengthened the anti-MDR, anti-inflammatory, and pro-apoptotic properties of phenothiazines in LoVo/Dx cells.