Esculetin suppresses lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory mediators and cytokines by inhibiting nuclear factor-κB translocation in RAW 264.7 macrophages

Antioxidant and anti‑inflammatory effects of esculin and esculetin (Review)

Fraxinus chinensis Roxb is a deciduous tree, which is distributed worldwide and has important medicinal value. In Asia, the bark of Fraxinus chinensis Roxb is a commonly used traditional Chinese medicine called Qinpi. Esculetin is a coumarin compound derived from the bark of Fraxinus chinensis Roxb and its glycoside form is called esculin. The aim of the present study was to systematically review relevant literature on the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of esculetin and esculin. Esculetin and esculin can promote the expression of various endogenous antioxidant proteins, such as superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase. This is associated with the activation of the nuclear factor erythroid-derived factor 2-related factor 2 signaling pathway. The anti-inflammatory effects of esculetin and esculin are associated with the inhibition of the nuclear factor κ-B and mitogen-activated protein kinase inflammatory signaling pathways. In various inflammatory models, esculetin and esculin can reduce the expression levels of various proinflammatory factors such as tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6, thereby inhibiting the development of inflammation. In summary, esculetin and esculin may be promising candidates for the treatment of numerous diseases associated with inflammation and oxidative stress, such as ulcerative colitis, acute lung and kidney injury, lung cancer, acute kidney injury.

Pharmacological activities of esculin and esculetin: A review

Esculin and esculetin are 2 widely studied coumarin components of Cortex Fraxini, which is a well-known herbal medicine with a 2000-year history. In vivo and in vitro studies have demonstrated that both have a variety of pharmacological activities, including antioxidant, anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antidiabetic, immunomodulatory, anti-atherosclerotic, and so on. Their underlying mechanisms of action and biological activities include scavenging free radicals, modulating the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 pathway, regulating the cell cycle, inhibiting tumor cell proliferation and migration, promoting mitochondrial pathway apoptosis, inhibiting the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways, regulating CD4+ T cells differentiation and associated cytokine release, inhibiting vascular smooth muscle cells, etc. This review aims to provide comprehensive information on pharmacological studies of esculin and esculetin, which is of noteworthy importance in exploring the therapeutic potential of both coumarin compounds.

A Transcriptome-Wide Analysis of Psoriasis: Identifying the Potential Causal Genes and Drug Candidates

Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory skin disease characterized by cutaneous eruptions and pruritus. Because the genetic backgrounds of psoriasis are only partially revealed, an integrative and rigorous study is necessary. We conducted a transcriptome-wide association study (TWAS) with the new Genotype-Tissue Expression version 8 reference panels, including some tissue and multi-tissue panels that were not used previously. We performed tissue-specific heritability analyses on genome-wide association study data to prioritize the tissue panels for TWAS analysis. TWAS and colocalization (COLOC) analyses were performed with eight tissues from the single-tissue panels and the multi-tissue panels of context-specific genetics (CONTENT) to increase tissue specificity and statistical power. From TWAS, we identified the significant associations of 101 genes in the single-tissue panels and 64 genes in the multi-tissue panels, of which 26 genes were replicated in the COLOC. Functional annotation and network analyses identified that the genes were associated with psoriasis and/or immune responses. We also suggested drug candidates that interact with jointly significant genes through a conditional and joint analysis. Together, our findings may contribute to revealing the underlying genetic mechanisms and provide new insights into treatments for psoriasis.

Preparation, Physical Characterization, Pharmacokinetics and Anti-Hyperglycemic Activity of Esculetin-Loaded Mixed Micelles

Despite its low water solubility, esculetin (EC) have been described to demonstrate various health benefits. Thus, we sought to develop esculetin-loaded mixed micelles (EC-M) delivery system to purposively improve biological availability and anti-hyperglycemia activity of EC. Thin-film hydration method was employed to fabricate EC-M, amid characterization with transmission electron microscopic analysis (TEM), coupled with physical properties such as particle size (PS), poly-dispersity index (PDI), zeta-potential (ZP) and stability testing. We analyzed in-vitro release and studied EC-M pharmacokinetics in rats. The hyperglycemic mice model was established with streptozotocin (STZ) to evaluate anti-hyperglycemic activity of EC-M. The PS, PDI and ZP of EC-M were 47.97 ± 0.41 nm, 0.189 ± 0.005 and -25.55 ± 0.28 mV, respectively. The release rate of EC-M increased comparable to free EC in the three media. The oral biological availability and half-life of EC-M increased respectively by 3.06 and 1.45 folds compared to free EC. Besides, we observed 46.21% decrease in blood glucose of mice in EC-M group comparable to the model control, wherein, the anti-hyperglycemic effect of EC-M was better compared to free EC. Conclusively, EC-M may ideally serve as a novel approach to enhance biological availability and increased anti-hyperglycemic activity of EC.

New insight into the management of renal excretion and hyperuricemia: Potential therapeutic strategies with natural bioactive compounds

Hyperuricemia is the result of increased production and/or underexcretion of uric acid. Hyperuricemia has been epidemiologically associated with multiple comorbidities, including metabolic syndrome, gout with long-term systemic inflammation, chronic kidney disease, urolithiasis, cardiovascular disease, hypertension, rheumatoid arthritis, dyslipidemia, diabetes/insulin resistance and increased oxidative stress. Dysregulation of xanthine oxidoreductase (XOD), the enzyme that catalyzes uric acid biosynthesis primarily in the liver, and urate transporters that reabsorb urate in the renal proximal tubules (URAT1, GLUT9, OAT4 and OAT10) and secrete urate (ABCG2, OAT1, OAT3, NPT1, and NPT4) in the renal tubules and intestine, is a major cause of hyperuricemia, along with variations in the genes encoding these proteins. The first-line therapeutic drugs used to lower serum uric acid levels include XOD inhibitors that limit uric acid biosynthesis and uricosurics that decrease urate reabsorption in the renal proximal tubules and increase urate excretion into the urine and intestine via urate transporters. However, long-term use of high doses of these drugs induces acute kidney disease, chronic kidney disease and liver toxicity. Therefore, there is an urgent need for new nephroprotective drugs with improved safety profiles and tolerance. The current systematic review summarizes the characteristics of major urate transporters, the mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of hyperuricemia, and the regulation of uric acid biosynthesis and transport. Most importantly, this review highlights the potential mechanisms of action of some naturally occurring bioactive compounds with antihyperuricemic and nephroprotective potential isolated from various medicinal plants.

Potent inhibitory activity of hydroxylated 2-benzylidene-3,4-dihydronaphthalen-1(2H)-ones on LPS-stimulated reactive oxygen species production in RAW 264.7 macrophages

This study attempted to discover tetralone-derived potent ROS inhibitors by synthesizing sixty-six hydroxylated and halogenated 2-benzylidene-3,4-dihydronaphthalen-1(2H)-ones via Claisen-Schmidt condensation reaction. The majority of the synthesized and investigated compounds significantly inhibited ROS in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. When compared to malvidin (IC₅₀ = 9.00 µM), compound 28 (IC₅₀ = 0.18 µM) possessing 6‑hydroxyl and 2‑trifluoromethylphenyl moiety showed the most potent ROS inhibition. In addition, the compounds 20, 31, 39, 45, 47-48, 52, 55-56, 58-60, and 62 also displayed ten folds greater ROS inhibitory activity relative to the reference compound. Based on the structure-activity relationship study, incorporating hydroxyl groups at the 6- and 7-positions of tetralone scaffold along with different halogen functionalities in phenyl ring B is crucial for potent ROS suppression. This study contributes to a better understanding of the effect of halogen and phenolic groups in ROS suppression, and further investigations on 2-benzylidene-3,4-dihydronaphthalen-1(2H)-ones will potentially lead to the discovery of effective anti-inflammatory agents.

Activation of Nrf2 by Esculetin Mitigates Inflammatory Responses through Suppression of NF-κB Signaling Cascade in RAW 264.7 Cells

Inflammation is a major root of several diseases such as allergy, cancer, Alzheimer’s, and several others, and the present state of existing drugs provoked researchers to search for new treatment strategies. Plants are regarded to be unique sources of active compounds holding pharmacological properties, and they offer novel designs in the development of therapeutic agents. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the anti-inflammatory mechanism of esculetin in lipoteichoic acid (LTA)-induced macrophage cells (RAW 264.7). The relative expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), nitric oxide (NO) production and COX-2 expression were intensified in LTA-induced RAW cells. The phosphorylation status of mitogen-activated protein kinases (extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2, p38 MAPK, and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK)) and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) p65 were detected by using Western blot assay. The nuclear translocation of p65 was assessed by confocal microscopic image analysis. Esculetin significantly and concentration-dependently inhibited LTA-induced NO production and iNOS expression, but not COX-2 expression, in RAW cells. Esculetin was not effective in LTA-induced MAPK molecules (ERK, p38 and JNK). However, esculetin recovered LTA-induced IκBα degradation and NF-κB p65 phosphorylation. Moreover, esculetin at a higher concentration of 20 µM evidently inhibited the nuclear translocation of NF-κB p65. At the same high concentration, esculetin augmented Nrf2 expression and decreased DPPH radical generation in RAW 264.7 cells. This study exhibits the value of esculetin for the treatment of LTA-induced inflammation by targeting NF-κB signaling pathways via its antioxidant properties.

Improvement effects of esculetin on the formation and development of atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is one of the potential causes of death in patients with cardiovascular disease. With the discovery of new anti atherosclerotic drugs becoming the pursuit of the pharmaceutical industry, natural products have attracted more and more attention because of their unique efficacy in the treatment of atherosclerosis. More and more studies have shown that esculetin, a coumarin mainly found in cortex fraxini, can improve atherosclerosis by participating in cellular antioxidant responses and reducing inflammation related pathogenesis. This paper summarizes the researches of esculetin on anti-atherosclerosis in the past two decades. Esculetin plays an anti atherosclerotic role through reducing blood triglyceride level, preventing the proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) and the production of matrix metallopeptidase 9 (MMP-9), inhibiting the oxidation of low density lipoprotein (LDL) and the secretion of adhesion factors and chemokines, and increasing the outflow level of high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C). Esculetin is safe and reliable, easy to be absorbed by the body and can be synthesized in a variety of ways. Although there are still few clinical studies on anti-atherosclerosis, in vivo experiments have proved that esculetin has high bioavailability. From the current research, the anti-atherosclerotic effect of esculetin is positive and encouraging. However, much work remains to be done to clarify the molecular mechanism of esculetin in the treatment of atherosclerosis.

Esculetin: A review of its pharmacology and pharmacokinetics

Esculetin is a natural dihydroxy coumarin; it is mainly extracted from twig skin and the trunk bark of the Chinese herbal medicine Fraxinus rhynchophylla Hance. Emerging evidence suggests that esculetin has a wide range of pharmacological activities. Based on its fundamental properties, including antioxidant, antiinflammatory, antiapoptotic, anticancer, antidiabetic, neuroprotective, and cardiovascular protective activities, as well as antibacterial activity, among others, esculetin is expected to be a therapeutic drug for specific disease indications, such as cancer, diabetes, atherosclerosis, Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), and other diseases. The oral bioavailability of esculetin was shown by studies to be low. The extensive glucuronidation was described to be the main metabolic pathway of esculetin and C-7 phenolic hydroxyl to be its major metabolic site. With the development of scientific research technology, the pharmacological effects of esculetin are identified and its potential for the treatment of diseases is demonstrated. The underlining mechanisms of action and biological activities as well as the pharmacokinetic data of the analyzed compound reported so far are highlighted in this review with the aim of becoming a proven, and applicable insight and reference for further studies on the utilization of esculetin.

In vitro anti-inflammatory potential of marine macromolecules cross-linked bio-composite scaffold on LPS stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cells for cartilage tissue engineering applications

Biomaterials serve as an integral component of tissue engineering. They are designed to provide architectural framework of native extracellular matrix so as to encourage cell growth and eventual tissue regeneration. Naturally occurring biopolymers as scaffolds offer options for cartilage tissue engineering due to anti-inflammatory, biocompatibility, biodegradability, low toxicity of degradation by-products and plasticity in processing into a variety of material formats. Here we studied in vitro anti-inflammatory potential of marine macromolecules cross-linked bio-composite scaffold composed of hydroxyapatite, alginate, chitosan and fucoidan named as HACF on LPS stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cells. The effects of HACF on the viability of RAW264.7 cells, nitrite level, intracellular ROS as well as the mRNA levels of NF-κB, iNOS, COX-2, TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 were examined in LPS induced RAW264.7 macrophage cells. The results revealed that HACF hydrogel scaffold exerts anti-inflammatory effect by inhibiting the production of ROS, suppress NF-kB translocation to the nucleus and thereby inhibiting the production of inflammatory mediators. Hence, our results confirm that HACF has a strong anti-oxidant capacity to inhibit inflammation associated gene expression by suppressing NF-kB signaling pathway. It clearly reveals the anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory effect of HACF hydrogel scaffold on LPS induced RAW 264.7 cells.

Artemisia scoparia and Metabolic Health: Untapped Potential of an Ancient Remedy for Modern Use

Botanicals have a long history of medicinal use for a multitude of ailments, and many modern pharmaceuticals were originally isolated from plants or derived from phytochemicals. Among these, artemisinin, first isolated from Artemisia annua, is the foundation for standard anti-malarial therapies. Plants of the genus Artemisia are among the most common herbal remedies across Asia and Central Europe. The species Artemisia scoparia (SCOPA) is widely used in traditional folk medicine for various liver diseases and inflammatory conditions, as well as for infections, fever, pain, cancer, and diabetes. Modern in vivo and in vitro studies have now investigated SCOPA's effects on these pathologies and its ability to mitigate hepatotoxicity, oxidative stress, obesity, diabetes, and other disease states. This review focuses on the effects of SCOPA that are particularly relevant to metabolic health. Indeed, in recent years, an ethanolic extract of SCOPA has been shown to enhance differentiation of cultured adipocytes and to share some properties of thiazolidinediones (TZDs), a class of insulin-sensitizing agonists of the adipogenic transcription factor PPARγ. In a mouse model of diet-induced obesity, SCOPA diet supplementation lowered fasting insulin and glucose levels, while inducing metabolically favorable changes in adipose tissue and liver. These observations are consistent with many lines of evidence from various tissues and cell types known to contribute to metabolic homeostasis, including immune cells, hepatocytes, and pancreatic beta-cells. Compounds belonging to several classes of phytochemicals have been implicated in these effects, and we provide an overview of these bioactives. The ongoing global epidemics of obesity and metabolic disease clearly require novel therapeutic approaches. While the mechanisms involved in SCOPA's effects on metabolic, anti-inflammatory, and oxidative stress pathways are not fully characterized, current data support further investigation of this plant and its bioactives as potential therapeutic agents in obesity-related metabolic dysfunction and many other conditions.

Dual Effect of Soloxolone Methyl on LPS-Induced Inflammation In Vitro and In Vivo

Plant-extracted triterpenoids belong to a class of bioactive compounds with pleotropic functions, including antioxidant, anti-cancer, and anti-inflammatory effects. In this work, we investigated the anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative activities of a semisynthetic derivative of 18βH-glycyrrhetinic acid (18βH-GA), soloxolone methyl (methyl 2-cyano-3,12-dioxo-18βH-olean-9(11),1(2)-dien-30-oate, or SM) in vitro on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages and in vivo in models of acute inflammation: LPS-induced endotoxemia and carrageenan-induced peritonitis. SM used at non-cytotoxic concentrations was found to attenuate the production of reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide (II) and increase the level of reduced glutathione production by LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. Moreover, SM strongly suppressed the phagocytic and migration activity of activated macrophages. These effects were found to be associated with the stimulation of heme oxigenase-1 (HO-1) expression, as well as with the inhibition of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and Akt phosphorylation. Surprisingly, it was found that SM significantly enhanced LPS-induced expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) in RAW264.7 cells via activation of the c-Jun/Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) signaling axis. In vivo pre-exposure treatment with SM effectively inhibited the development of carrageenan-induced acute inflammation in the peritoneal cavity, but it did not improve LPS-induced inflammation in the endotoxemia model.

Esculetin inhibits histamine-induced expression of inflammatory cytokines and mucin in nasal epithelial cells

Allergic rhinitis (AR) is a type of respiratory disease closely associated with chronic inflammation. Esculetin is a natural coumarin derivative and has been reported to possess anti-allergic and anti-inflammatory effects. However, the roles of esculetin in AR have not been studied. In this study, we aimed to examine the effect of esculetin on AR using an in vitro model. The human nasal epithelial cells (HNEpC) were stimulated by histamine for 24 hours with or without the pretreatment of esculetin. The mRNA levels and production of inflammatory cytokines including IL-6 and IL-8, as well as mucin 5AC (MUC5AC) were measured using qRT-PCR and ELISA, respectively. The results showed that esculetin suppressed histamine-induced expression and secretion of IL-6, IL-8, and MUC5AC in HNEpCs. Furthermore, we examined the effect of esculetin on NF-κB pathway by detecting the expression levels of NF-κB p65, p-p65 and IκBα using western blot analysis. Esculetin treatment suppressed the histamine-induced p-p65 expression and p-IκBα degradation. Inhibiting NF-κB pathway suppressed histamine-induced production of IL-6, IL-8, and MUC5AC in HNEpCs. These findings suggested that esculetin suppressed histamine-induced production of inflammatory cytokines and mucin in HNEpCs, which were partly mediated by the inhibition of NF-κB pathway.

Antibacterial synergy between rutin and florfenicol enhances therapeutic spectrum against drug resistant Aeromonas hydrophila

Emergence of antibiotic resistant bacteria has necessitated the drive to explore competent antimicrobial agents or to develop novel formulations to treat infections including Aeromonas hydrophila. The present study investigates the synergistic antibacterial effects of citrus flavonoid rutin and florfenicol (FF) against A. hydrophila in vitro and in vivo. Rutin is extracted and purified from Citrus sinensis peel through preparative HPLC and characterized through TLC, GC-MS and ¹H and ¹³C NMR analyses. Though rutin did not display significant antibacterial activity, it modulated FF activity resulting in four-fold reduction in the MIC value for FF. The anti-biofilm potential of synergistic association of rutin and FF was validated by protein analysis, quantification of exopolysaccharide (EPS) and microscopy studies using sub-MIC doses. Besides antibacterial action, in vivo studies showed that Rutin/FF combination enhanced host immunity by improving blood cell count, anti-protease, and lysozyme activities as well as decreased the oxidative stress and the pathological changes of tilapia Oreochromis niloticus against A. hydrophila infection. No significant DNA damages or clastogenic effects were detected in tilapia challenged with A. hydrophila under Rutin/FF treatment. It is shown that an acute-phase Lipopolysaccharide binding protein (LBP) enhances the innate host defence against bacterial challenge. Semi quantitative RT-PCR and western blot results revealed the significant increase of LBP in the supernatant of tilapia monocytes/macrophages challenged with A. hydrophila upon treatment. The study findings substantiate that the combination of natural molecules with antibiotics may open up possibilities to treat MDR strains.

Schisandrin A suppresses lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation and oxidative stress in RAW 264.7 macrophages by suppressing the NF-κB, MAPKs and PI3K/Akt pathways and activating Nrf2/HO-1 signaling

Schisandrin A is a bioactive lignan occurring in the fruits of plants of the Schisandra genus that have traditionally been used in Korea for treating various inflammatory diseases. Although the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects of lignan analogues similar to schisandrin A have been reported, the underlying molecular mechanisms have remained elusive. In the present study, schisandrin A significantly suppressed the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced production of the key pro-inflammatory mediators nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 by suppressing the expression of inducible NO synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 at the mRNA and protein levels in RAW 264.7 macrophages. Furthermore, schisandrin A was demonstrated to reduce the LPS-induced secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-1β; this was accompanied by a simultaneous decrease in the respective mRNA and protein levels in the macrophages. In addition, the LPS- induced translocation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), as well as activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and phosphatidylinositol‑3 kinase (PI3K)/Akt pathways were inhibited by schisandrin A. Furthermore, schisandrin A significantly diminished the LPS-stimulated accumulation of intracellular reactive oxygen species, and effectively enhanced the expression of NF erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1). These results suggested that schisandrin A has a protective effect against LPS-induced inflammatory and oxidative responses in RAW 264.7 cells by inhibiting the NF-κB, MAPK and PI3K/Akt pathways; these effects are mediated, at least in part, by the activation of the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway. Based on these results, it is concluded that schisandrin A may have therapeutic potential for treating inflammatory and oxidative disorders caused by over-activation of macrophages.

Esculetin Attenuates Th2 and Th17 Responses in an Ovalbumin-Induced Asthmatic Mouse Model

The purpose of the current study was to investigate the anti-asthmatic effect of esculetin (ES) and explore its potential mechanism with a mouse model of allergic asthma. A total number of 50 mice were randomly assigned to five groups: control, model, dexamethasone (Dex, 2 mg/kg), and ES (20 mg/kg, 40 mg/kg). Mouse asthma model was developed with the sensitization and challenge of ovalbumin (OVA). The levels of IgE in serum, eosinophilia infiltration, Th2/Th17 cytokines, Th17 cell frequency, histological condition, and the protein expressions of RORγt, GATA3 were detected. Our study demonstrated that ES inhibited, OVA-induced eosinophil count, interleukin-4 (IL-4), IL-5, IL-13, and IL-17A levels were recovered in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Flow cytometry (FCM) studies revealed that ES substantially inhibited Th17 cells' percentage. Western blot study also indicated that ES downregulated RORγt and GATA3 expressions. Meanwhile, ES had beneficial effects on the histological alteration. These findings suggested that ES might effectively ameliorate the progression of asthma and could be used as a therapy for patients with allergic asthma.

Effects of esculetin on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute lung injury via regulation of RhoA/Rho Kinase/NF-кB pathways in vivo and in vitro

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the protective effect of esculetin (ES) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute lung injury (ALI) and the lung epithelial A549 cells. Mice were intragastrically administered with ES (20 and 40 mg/kg) 1 h prior to LPS challenge. ES pretreatment at doses of 20 and 40 mg/kg effectively attenuated LPS-induced lung histopathological change, myeloperoxidase or MPO activity, inflammatory cells infiltration, pulmonary wet-to-dry weight ratio, and the generation of pro-inflammatory cytokines including tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) in vivo and in vitro. Furthermore, we demonstrated that ES blocked the activation of NF-кB and RhoA/Rho kinase pathways in LPS-induced mice and A549 cells. The results suggested that ES exhibited protective effect on ALI and might attribute partly to the inhibition of NF-кB and RhoA/Rho kinase pathways in vivo and in vitro.

Regulating effect of activated NF-κB on edema induced by traumatic brain injury of rats

OBJECTIVE

To observe the effect of nuclear transcription factor-κB (NF-κB) on cerebral edema in rats with traumatic brain injury (TBI).

METHODS

Male SD rats with fluid percussion injury (FPI) were selected. After separation and culture, rats' astrocytes all suffered FPI. The expression of NF-κB and the water content were detected at the animal and cellular levels, while the activity of NOX was evaluated at the cellular level.

RESULTS

According to the results, the positive expression of NF-κB and expression of mRNA were significantly increased and the water content was increased for rats after TBI, while NF-κB inhibitor BAY11-7082 could significantly reduce the effect of TBI. 1 and 3 h after FPI of astrocytes, the activation of NF-κB was increased and BAY 11-7082 could significantly improve the injury-induced swelling of astrocytes. After the injury of astrocytes, the activity of NOX was also increased, while BAY 11-7082 could reduce the activity of NOX.

CONCLUSIONS

The results show that the activation of NF-κB in astrocytes is a key factor in the process of cerebral edema after TBI of rats.