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Kang X, Jadhav S, Annaji M, Huang CH, Amin R, Shen J, Ashby CR, Tiwari AK, Babu RJ, Chen P. Advancing Cancer Therapy with Copper/Disulfiram Nanomedicines and Drug Delivery Systems. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:1567. [PMID: 37376016 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15061567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Revised: 05/13/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Disulfiram (DSF) is a thiocarbamate based drug that has been approved for treating alcoholism for over 60 years. Preclinical studies have shown that DSF has anticancer efficacy, and its supplementation with copper (CuII) significantly potentiates the efficacy of DSF. However, the results of clinical trials have not yielded promising results. The elucidation of the anticancer mechanisms of DSF/Cu (II) will be beneficial in repurposing DSF as a new treatment for certain types of cancer. DSF's anticancer mechanism is primarily due to its generating reactive oxygen species, inhibiting aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) activity inhibition, and decreasing the levels of transcriptional proteins. DSF also shows inhibitory effects in cancer cell proliferation, the self-renewal of cancer stem cells (CSCs), angiogenesis, drug resistance, and suppresses cancer cell metastasis. This review also discusses current drug delivery strategies for DSF alone diethyldithocarbamate (DDC), Cu (II) and DSF/Cu (II), and the efficacious component Diethyldithiocarbamate-copper complex (CuET).
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuejia Kang
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison College of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
- Materials Research and Education Center, Materials Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | - Sanika Jadhav
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Experimental Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
| | - Manjusha Annaji
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison College of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | - Chung-Hui Huang
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison College of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | - Rajesh Amin
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison College of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | - Jianzhong Shen
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison College of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | - Charles R Ashby
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, St. John's University, Queens, NY 11431, USA
| | - Amit K Tiwari
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - R Jayachandra Babu
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison College of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | - Pengyu Chen
- Materials Research and Education Center, Materials Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
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A comparative study of smart nanoformulations of diethyldithiocarbamate with Cu 4O 3 nanoparticles or zinc oxide nanoparticles for efficient eradication of metastatic breast cancer. Sci Rep 2023; 13:3529. [PMID: 36864097 PMCID: PMC9981580 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-30553-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2023] [Indexed: 03/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Metastatic tumor is initiated by metastatic seeds (cancer stem cells "CSCs") in a controlled redox microenvironment. Hence, an effective therapy that disrupts redox balance with eliminating CSCs is critical. Diethyldithiocarbamate (DE) is potent inhibitor of radical detoxifying enzyme (aldehyde dehydrogenase "ALDH"1A) causing effective eradication of CSCs. This DE effect was augmented and more selective by its nanoformulating with green synthesized copper oxide (Cu4O3) nanoparticles (NPs) and zinc oxide NPs, forming novel nanocomplexes of CD NPs and ZD NPs, respectively. These nanocomplexes exhibited the highest apoptotic, anti-migration, and ALDH1A inhibition potentials in M.D. Anderson-metastatic breast (MDA-MB) 231 cells. Importantly, these nanocomplexes revealed more selective oxidant activity than fluorouracil by elevating reactive oxygen species with depleting glutathione in only tumor tissues (mammary and liver) using mammary tumor liver metastasis animal model. Due to higher tumoral uptake and stronger oxidant activity of CD NPs than ZD NPs, CD NPs had more potential to induce apoptosis, suppress hypoxia-inducing factor gene, and eliminate CD44+CSCs with downregulating their stemness, chemoresistance, and metastatic genes and diminishing hepatic tumor marker (α-fetoprotein). These potentials interpreted the highest tumor size reduction with complete eradicating tumor metastasis to liver in CD NPs. Consequently, CD nanocomplex revealed the highest therapeutic potential representing a safe and promising nanomedicine against the metastatic stage of breast cancer.
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Almeida-Silva J, Menezes DS, Fernandes JMP, Almeida MC, Vasco-Dos-Santos DR, Saraiva RM, Viçosa AL, Perez SAC, Andrade SG, Suarez-Fontes AM, Vannier-Santos MA. The repositioned drugs disulfiram/diethyldithiocarbamate combined to benznidazole: Searching for Chagas disease selective therapy, preventing toxicity and drug resistance. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:926699. [PMID: 35967878 PMCID: PMC9372510 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.926699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Chagas disease (CD) affects at least 6 million people in 21 South American countries besides several thousand in other nations all over the world. It is estimated that at least 14,000 people die every year of CD. Since vaccines are not available, chemotherapy remains of pivotal relevance. About 30% of the treated patients cannot complete the therapy because of severe adverse reactions. Thus, the search for novel drugs is required. Here we tested the benznidazole (BZ) combination with the repositioned drug disulfiram (DSF) and its derivative diethyldithiocarbamate (DETC) upon Trypanosoma cruzi in vitro and in vivo. DETC-BZ combination was synergistic diminishing epimastigote proliferation and enhancing selective indexes up to over 10-fold. DETC was effective upon amastigotes of the BZ- partially resistant Y and the BZ-resistant Colombiana strains. The combination reduced proliferation even using low concentrations (e.g., 2.5 µM). Scanning electron microscopy revealed membrane discontinuities and cell body volume reduction. Transmission electron microscopy revealed remarkable enlargement of endoplasmic reticulum cisternae besides, dilated mitochondria with decreased electron density and disorganized kinetoplast DNA. At advanced stages, the cytoplasm vacuolation apparently impaired compartmentation. The fluorescent probe H2-DCFDA indicates the increased production of reactive oxygen species associated with enhanced lipid peroxidation in parasites incubated with DETC. The biochemical measurement indicates the downmodulation of thiol expression. DETC inhibited superoxide dismutase activity on parasites was more pronounced than in infected mice. In order to approach the DETC effects on intracellular infection, peritoneal macrophages were infected with Colombiana trypomastigotes. DETC addition diminished parasite numbers and the DETC-BZ combination was effective, despite the low concentrations used. In the murine infection, the combination significantly enhanced animal survival, decreasing parasitemia over BZ. Histopathology revealed that low doses of BZ-treated animals presented myocardial amastigote, not observed in combination-treated animals. The picrosirius collagen staining showed reduced myocardial fibrosis. Aminotransferase de aspartate, Aminotransferase de alanine, Creatine kinase, and urea plasma levels demonstrated that the combination was non-toxic. As DSF and DETC can reduce the toxicity of other drugs and resistance phenotypes, such a combination may be safe and effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliana Almeida-Silva
- Innovations in Therapies, Education and Bioproducts Laboratory, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Diego Silva Menezes
- Parasite Biology Laboratory, Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Salvador, BA, Brazil
| | - Juan Mateus Pereira Fernandes
- Innovations in Therapies, Education and Bioproducts Laboratory, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Márcio Cerqueira Almeida
- Parasite Biology Laboratory, Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Salvador, BA, Brazil
| | - Deyvison Rhuan Vasco-Dos-Santos
- Innovations in Therapies, Education and Bioproducts Laboratory, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Roberto Magalhães Saraiva
- Laboratory of Clinical Research on Chagas Disease, Evandro Chagas Infectious Disease Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Alessandra Lifsitch Viçosa
- Experimental Pharmacotechnics Laboratory, Department of Galenic Innovation, Institute of Drug Technology - Farmanguinhos, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Sandra Aurora Chavez Perez
- Project Management Technical Assistance, Institute of Drug Technology - Farmanguinhos, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Sônia Gumes Andrade
- Experimental Chagas Disease Laboratory, Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Salvador, BA, Brazil
| | - Ana Márcia Suarez-Fontes
- Innovations in Therapies, Education and Bioproducts Laboratory, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Marcos André Vannier-Santos
- Innovations in Therapies, Education and Bioproducts Laboratory, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
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Zhao P, Tang X, Huang Y. Teaching new tricks to old dogs: A review of drug repositioning of disulfiram for cancer nanomedicine. VIEW 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/viw.20200127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Pengfei Zhao
- School of Chinese Materia Medica Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine Nanjing China
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica Chinese Academy of Sciences Shanghai China
| | - Xueping Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica Chinese Academy of Sciences Shanghai China
- Artemisinin Research Center Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine Guangzhou China
| | - Yongzhuo Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica Chinese Academy of Sciences Shanghai China
- NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Research and Evaluation of Pharmaceutical Excipients Shanghai China
- Zhongshan Institute for Drug Discovery, Institutes of Drug Discovery and Development Chinese Academy of Sciences Zhongshan China
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Nasrollahzadeh A, Momeny M, Fasehee H, Yaghmaie M, Bashash D, Hassani S, Mousavi SA, Ghaffari SH. Anti-proliferative activity of disulfiram through regulation of the AKT-FOXO axis: A proteomic study of molecular targets. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2021; 1868:119087. [PMID: 34182011 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2021.119087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2021] [Revised: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Due to its potent anti-tumor activity, well-investigated pharmacokinetic properties and safety profile, disulfiram (DSF) has emerged as a promising candidate for drug repurposing in cancer therapy. Although several molecular mechanisms have been proposed for its anti-cancer effects, the precise underlying mechanisms remain unclear. In the present study, we showed that DSF inhibited proliferation of cancer cells by inducing reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, a G1 cell cycle arrest and autophagy. Moreover, DSF triggered apoptosis via suppression of the anti-apoptotic protein survivin. To elucidate the mechanisms for the anti-proliferative activities of DSF, we applied a 2-DE combined with MALDI-TOF-MS/MS analysis to identify differentially expressed proteins in breast cancer cells upon treatment with DSF. Nine differentially expressed proteins were identified among which, three candidates including calmodulin (CaM), peroxiredoxin 1 (PRDX1) and collagen type I alpha 1 (COL1A1) are involved in the regulation of the AKT signaling pathway. The results of western blot analysis confirmed that DSF inhibited p-AKT, suggesting that DSF induces its anti-tumor effects via AKT blockade. Moreover, we found that DSF increased the mRNA levels of FOXO1, FOXO3 and FOXO4, and upregulated the expression of their target genes involved in G1 cell cycle arrest, apoptosis and autophagy. Finally, DSF potentiated the anti-proliferative effects of well-known chemotherapeutic agents such as arsenic trioxide (ATO), doxorubicin, paclitaxel and cisplatin. Altogether, these findings provide mechanistic insights into the anti-growth activities of DSF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Nasrollahzadeh
- Hematology, Oncology and Stem Cell Transplantation Research Center, Shariati Hospital, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Majid Momeny
- Turku Bioscience Centre, University of Turku and Åbo Akademi University, FI-20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Hamidreza Fasehee
- Tissue Engineering and Biomaterials Research Center, National Institute of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (NIGEB), Tehran 14965/161, Iran
| | - Marjan Yaghmaie
- Hematology, Oncology and Stem Cell Transplantation Research Center, Shariati Hospital, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Davood Bashash
- Department of Hematology and Blood Banking, School of Allied Medical Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Saeed Hassani
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, School of Allied Medical Sciences, Arak University of Medical Sciences, Arak, Iran
| | - Seyed A Mousavi
- Hematology, Oncology and Stem Cell Transplantation Research Center, Shariati Hospital, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Seyed H Ghaffari
- Hematology, Oncology and Stem Cell Transplantation Research Center, Shariati Hospital, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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Solak K, Mavi A, Yılmaz B. Disulfiram-loaded functionalized magnetic nanoparticles combined with copper and sodium nitroprusside in breast cancer cells. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2021; 119:111452. [DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2020.111452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Revised: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Recent advances in the delivery of disulfiram: a critical analysis of promising approaches to improve its pharmacokinetic profile and anticancer efficacy. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 27:853-862. [PMID: 31758497 DOI: 10.1007/s40199-019-00308-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2019] [Accepted: 10/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Disulfiram (DSF) has a long history of being used as a first-line promising therapy for treatment of alcoholism in human. Besides its prominence in the treatment of alcoholism, extensive investigations have been carried out to explore other biomedical and pharmacological effects of DSF. Amongst other biomedical implications, plenty researches have shown evidence of promising anticancer efficacy of this agent for treatment of wide range of cancers such as breast cancer, liver cancer and lung carcinoma. METHODS Electronic databases, including Google scholar, PubMed and Web of science were searched with the keywords disulfiram, nanoparticles, cancer, drug delivery systems. RESULT Despite its excellent anticancer efficacy, the pharmaceutical significance and clinical applicability of DSF are hampered due to poor stability, low solubility, short plasma half-life, rapid metabolism, and early clearance from systemic circulation. Various attempts have been made to eradicate these issues. Nanotechnology based interventions have gained remarkable recognition in improving pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profile of DSF by improving its stability and avoiding its degradation. CONCLUSION The aim of the present review is to critically analyse all recent developments in designing various nanotechnology-based delivery systems, to ponder their relevance in improving stability, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profile, and achieving target-specific delivery of this agent to cancer cells to effectively eradicate cancer and abolish its metastasis. Nanotechnology is a novel approach for overcoming such obstacles faced presently, the results obtained so far using different novel drug delivery systems seem to be very promising to increase the stability and half-life of DSF. Graphical abstract Nanocrrier mediated drug delivery systems for disulfiram.
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Tabrizi L, Abyar F. De Novo Design of Cu(II) Complex Containing CNC–Pincer–Vitamin B3 and B7 Conjugates for Breast Cancer Application. Mol Pharm 2019; 16:3802-3813. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.9b00399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Leila Tabrizi
- School of Chemistry, National University of Ireland, Galway, University Road, Galway H91 TK33, Ireland
| | - Fatemeh Abyar
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ardakan University, P.O. Box 184, Ardakan, Iran
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Viola-Rhenals M, Patel KR, Jaimes-Santamaria L, Wu G, Liu J, Dou QP. Recent Advances in Antabuse (Disulfiram): The Importance of its Metal-binding Ability to its Anticancer Activity. Curr Med Chem 2018; 25:506-524. [PMID: 29065820 PMCID: PMC6873226 DOI: 10.2174/0929867324666171023161121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2016] [Revised: 12/05/2016] [Accepted: 12/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Considerable evidence demonstrates the importance of dithiocarbamates especially disulfiram as anticancer drugs. However there are no systematic reviews outlining how their metal-binding ability is related to their anticancer activity. This review aims to summarize chemical features and metal-binding activity of disulfiram and its metabolite DEDTC, and discuss different mechanisms of action of disulfiram and their contributions to the drug's anticancer activity. METHODS We undertook a disulfiram-related search on bibliographic databases of peerreviewed research literature, including many historic papers and in vitro, in vivo, preclinical and clinical studies. The selected papers were carefully reviewed and summarized. RESULTS More than five hundreds of papers were obtained in the initial search and one hundred eighteen (118) papers were included in the review, most of which deal with chemical and biological aspects of Disulfiram and the relationship of its chemical and biological properties. Eighty one (81) papers outline biological aspects of dithiocarbamates, and fifty seven (57) papers report biological activity of Disulfiram as an inhibitor of proteasomes or inhibitor of aldehyde dehydrogenase enzymes, interaction with other anticancer drugs, or mechanism of action related to reactive oxygen species. Other papers reviewed focus on chemical aspects of dithiocarbamates. CONCLUSION This review confirms the importance of chemical features of compounds such as Disulfiram to their biological activities, and supports repurposing DSF as a potential anticancer agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maricela Viola-Rhenals
- Biochemistry and Cell Biology of Cancer Group, Exacts and Natural Science Faculty, University of Cartagena, Cartagena, Colombia
| | - Kush R. Patel
- Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Departments of Oncology, Pharmacology and Pathology, School of Medicine, Wayne State University, Detroit, United States
| | - Laura Jaimes-Santamaria
- Biochemistry and Cell Biology of Cancer Group, Exacts and Natural Science Faculty, University of Cartagena, Cartagena, Colombia
| | - Guojun Wu
- Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Departments of Oncology, Pharmacology and Pathology, School of Medicine, Wayne State University, Detroit, United States
| | - Jinbao Liu
- Guangzhou Medical University, Protein Modification and Degradation Lab, Dongfeng Xi road 195#, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510182, China
| | - Q. Ping Dou
- Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Departments of Oncology, Pharmacology and Pathology, School of Medicine, Wayne State University, Detroit, United States
- Guangzhou Medical University, Protein Modification and Degradation Lab, Dongfeng Xi road 195#, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510182, China
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Vrzal R, Dvorak Z. The comparative effects of diethyldithiocarbamate-copper complex with established proteasome inhibitors on expression levels of CYP1A2/3A4 and their master regulators, aryl hydrocarbon and pregnane X receptor in primary cultures of human hepatocytes. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 2016; 30:585-595. [PMID: 27414036 DOI: 10.1111/fcp.12221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2016] [Revised: 06/20/2016] [Accepted: 07/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
In the recent years, a therapeutic potential of disulfiram (Antabuse) complex with copper, as an anticancer drug, was recognized towards several cancer cell lines. The proteasome was suggested as one of the cellular targets for this compound. As the therapeutic use of diethyldithiocarbamate-copper complex (CuET) is expected to increase, it is of great interest to know whether this compound may be the source of drug-drug interactions via the induction of biotransformation enzymes, especially cytochromes P450 (CYPs). To this purpose, we examined the effect of CuET and compared it with typical inducers (rifampicin and dioxin) of CYPs and with well-established proteasome inhibitors (MG132 and bortezomib). Diethyldithiocarbamate-copper complex revealed inconsistent and rather modulatory effect on the expression of CYP1A2 and CYP3A4 in several cultures of human hepatocytes. Moreover, it was able to cause neither ubiquitin accumulation nor significant and dose-dependent inhibition of proteasome activity. It had no effect on essential transcription factors involved in regulation of selected CYPs, aryl hydrocarbon (AhR) nor pregnane X receptor (PXR). However, the AhR protein was increased in majority of examined hepatocyte cultures. The main finding of this study is that: (i) disulfiram-copper complex is not the cause of drug-drug interactions via CYP1A2/3A4 induction; (ii) proteasome inhibitors may have different impact on studied parameters in given in vitro system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Radim Vrzal
- Department of Cell Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Science, Palacky University, Slechtitelu 27, Olomouc, 783 71, Czech Republic
| | - Zdenek Dvorak
- Department of Cell Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Science, Palacky University, Slechtitelu 27, Olomouc, 783 71, Czech Republic
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