Effects of R type and S type ginsenoside Rg3 on DNA methylation in human hepatocarcinoma cells

The pharmacological role of Ginsenoside Rg3 in liver diseases: A review on molecular mechanisms

Liver diseases are a significant global health burden and are among the most common diseases. Ginssennoside Rg3 (Rg3), which is one of the most abundant ginsenosides, has been found to have significant preventive and therapeutic effects against various types of diseases with minimal side effects. Numerous studies have demonstrated the significant preventive and therapeutic effects of Rg3 on various liver diseases such as viral hepatitis, acute liver injury, nonalcoholic liver diseases (NAFLD), liver fibrosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The underlying molecular mechanism behind these effects is attributed to apoptosis, autophagy, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory activities, and the regulation of multiple signaling pathways. This review provides a comprehensive description of the potential molecular mechanisms of Rg3 in the development of liver diseases. The article focuses on the regulation of apoptosis, oxidative stress, autophagy, inflammation, and other related factors. Additionally, the review discusses combination therapy and liver targeting strategy, which can accelerate the translation of Rg3 from bench to bedside. Overall, this article serves as a valuable reference for researchers and clinicians alike.

Ginsenoside Rg3 promotes hepatic stellate cell ferroptosis by epigenetically regulating ACSL4 to suppress liver fibrosis progression

BACKGROUND

Ginsenoside Rg3 (G-Rg3), extracted from Panax notoginseng, possesses hepatoprotective properties. Hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) activation is responsible for liver fibrosis. Recent studies have reported the suppressive effects of G-Rg3 on HSC activation and proliferation. Ferroptosis is a novel iron regulated cell death. ACSL4, a key indicator of ferroptosis, is commonly methylated in various diseases.

PURPOSE

However, the role of ACSL4 methylation-mediated HSC ferroptosis in G-Rg3 inhibition of hepatic fibrosis needs to be explored.

METHODS

Effects of G-Rg3 on inhibiting fibrosis were evaluated in vivo and in vitro. The impact of G-Rg3 on HSC ferroptosis was assessed in vitro. Furthermore, the expression of ACSL4, ACSL4 methylation and microRNA-6945-3p (miR-6945-3p) levels were determined.

RESULTS

G-Rg3 significantly alleviated CCl4-induced liver fibrosis, accompanied by collagen downregulation. In vitro, G-Rg3 contributed to HSC inactivation, leading to decreased collagen production. G-Rg3 induced HSC ferroptosis, characterized by increased iron accumulation, depletion of glutathione, malondialdehyde levels, and generation of lipid reactive oxygen species. Moreover, G-Rg3 promoted ACSL4 demethylation and restored its expression. Notably, DNMT3B counteracted the effect of G-Rg3-mediated inhibition of ACSL4 methylation and was targeted by miR-6945-3p. Further investigations revealed that G-Rg3 suppressed ACSL4 methylation through miR-6945-3p-mediated DNMT3B inhibition. Consistent with this, miR-6945-3p inhibition reversed G-Rg3-induced ACSL4 expression and HSC ferroptosis.

CONCLUSION

G-Rg3 inhibits ACSL4 methylation by miR-6945-3p-mediated DNMT3B inhibition, thereby promoting HSC ferroptosis and mitigating liver fibrosis.

Ginsenoside Rg3: A Review of its Anticancer Mechanisms and Potential Therapeutic Applications

BACKGROUND

Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) has a long history of treating various diseases and is increasingly being recognized as a complementary therapy for cancer. A promising natural compound extracted from the Chinese herb ginseng is ginsenoside Rg3, which has demonstrated significant anticancer effects. It has been tested in a variety of cancers and tumors and has proven to be effective in suppressing cancer.

OBJECTIVES

This work covers various aspects of the role of ginsenoside Rg3 in cancer treatment, including its biological functions, key pathways, epigenetics, and potential for combination therapies, all of which have been extensively researched and elucidated. The study aims to provide a reference for future research on ginsenoside Rg3 as an anticancer agent and a support for the potential application of ginsenoside Rg3 in cancer treatment.

Ginsenoside Rg3 inhibits renal cell carcinoma cell migration, invasion, colony formation, and tube formation and enhances apoptosis through promoting the DNA demethylation and histone acetylation

OBJECTIVES

This study explored the effect and mechanism of Rg3 on renal cell carcinoma (RCC) progression.

METHODS

RCC cells were treated with different concentrations of Rg3, 5-Aza-dc (a methyltransferase inhibitor) or TSA (a deacetylase inhibitor). Rg3-induced cytotoxicity, migration, invasion, colony formation, tube formation and apoptosis of RCC cells were evaluated by CCK-8, wound healing, Transwell, colony formation, tube formation and flow cytometry assays, respectively. Methylation and expressions of p53, p21 and p16, and expressions of methylation-related genes and histone deacetylases and histone acetylation-related genes (H3 (acetyl K14), H3 (acetyl K9), H4 (acetyl K12), H4 (acetyl K5) and H4 (acetyl K16)) were analysed by qRT-PCR and western blot.

KEY FINDINGS

Rg3 dose-dependently decreased the viability, inhibited migration, invasion, colony formation and tube formation, and enhanced apoptosis of RCC cells. Rg3 enhanced the demethylation levels and expressions of p53, p21 and p16 as well as the expressions of histone acetylation-related genes, but repressed the expressions of methylation-related genes and histone deacetylases. Rg3 had the same effect as 5-Aza-dc and TSA did on the above-mentioned cellular changes.

CONCLUSION

Rg3 restrains RCC cell migration, invasion, colony formation and tube formation, yet enhances apoptosis through promoting demethylation of p53, p21 and p16, and histone acetylation.

Saponins of ginseng products: a review of their transformation in processing

The primary processed product of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer (P. ginseng) is red ginseng. As technology advances, new products of red ginseng have arisen. Red ginseng products, e.g., traditional red ginseng, sun ginseng, black ginseng, fermented red ginseng, and puffed red ginseng, are commonly used in herbal medicine. Ginsenosides are the major secondary metabolites of P. ginseng. The constituents of P. ginseng are significantly changed during processing, and several pharmacological activities of red ginseng products are dramatically increased compared to white ginseng. In this paper, we aimed to review the ginsenosides and pharmacological activities of various red ginseng products, the transformation law of ginsenosides in processing, and some clinical trials of red ginseng products. This article will help to highlight the diverse pharmacological properties of red ginseng products and aid in the future development of red ginseng industrialization.

Traditional Chinese Medicine: A Class of Potentially Reliable Epigenetic Drugs

Epigenetic modification, especially DNA methylation, plays a nonnegligible role in the occurrence and development of tumors. Increasing studies are indicating that traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) plays a considerable anti-tumor role by regulating the process of DNA methylation modification. Studies on TCM regulating DNA methylation modification mostly focus on the whole genome and abnormal methylation status by active ingredients or single compounds and Chinese herb formula (CHF). The balance and overall concept of TCM theory coincides with the balance of DNA methylation modification in the tumor environment. Regardless of how TCM modulates epigenetics in tumor, it has been shown to bet a class of potentially reliable epigenetic drug.

Efficacy of ginsenoside Rg3 nanoparticles against Ehrlich solid tumor growth in mice

Solid tumors are fairly common and face many clinical difficulties since they are hardly surgically resectable and broadly do not respond to radiation and chemotherapy. The current study aimed to fabricate ginsenoside Rg3 nanoparticles (Rg3-NPs) and evaluate their antitumor effect against Ehrlich solid tumors (EST) in mice. Rg3-NPs were fabricated using whey protein isolates (WPI), maltodextrin (MD), and gum Arabic (GA). EST was developed by the injection of mice with Ehrlich ascites cells (2.5 × 10⁶). The mice were divided into a control group, EST group, and the EST groups that were treated orally 2 weeks for with normal Rg3 (3 mg/kg b.w.), Rg3-NPs at a low dose (3 mg/kg b.w.), and Rg3-NPs at a high dose (6 mg/kg b.w.). Serum and solid tumors were collected for different assays. The results revealed that synthesized Rg3-NPs showed a spherical shape with an average particle size of 20 nm and zeta potential of -5.58 mV. The in vivo study revealed that EST mice showed a significant increase in AFP, Casp3, TNF-α, MMP-9, VEGF, MDA, and DNA damage accompanied by a significant decrease in SOD and GPx. Treatment with Rg3 or Rg3-NPs decreased the tumor weight and size and induced a significant improvement in all the biochemical parameters. Rg3-NPs were more effective than Rg3, and the improvement was dose-dependent. It could be concluded that fabrication of Rg3-NPs enhanced the protective effect against EST development which may be due to the synergistic effect of Rg3 and MD, GA, and WPI.

Chinese Herbal Medicine for Primary Liver Cancer Therapy: Perspectives and Challenges

Primary liver cancer (PLC) is one of the most common solid malignancies. However, PLC drug development has been slow, and first-line treatments are still needed; thus, studies exploring and developing alternative strategies for effective PLC treatment are urgently needed. Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) has long been applied in the clinic due to its advantages of low toxicity and targeting of multiple factors and pathways, and it has great potential for the development of novel natural drugs against PLC.

Purpose: This review aims to provide an update on the pharmacological mechanisms of Chinese patent medicines (CPMs) and the latest CHM-derived compounds for the treatment of PLC and relevant clinical evaluations.

Materials and Methods: A systematic search of English literature databases, Chinese literature, the Clinical Trials Registry Platform, and the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry for studies of CHMs for PLC treatment was performed.

Results: In this review, we summarize the clinical trials and mechanisms of CPMs for PLC treatment that have entered the clinic with the approval of the Chinese medicine regulatory authority. These CPMs included Huaier granules, Ganfule granules, Fufang Banmao capsules, Jinlong capsules, Brucea javanica oil emulsions, and compound kushen injections. We also summarize the latest in vivo, in vitro, and clinical studies of CHM-derived compounds against PLC: icaritin and ginsenoside Rg3. Dilemmas facing the development of CHMs, such as drug toxicity and low oral availability, and future developments are also discussed.

Conclusion: This review provides a deeper the understanding of CHMs as PLC treatments and provides ideas for the development of new natural drugs against PLC.

Epigenetic Studies of Chinese Herbal Medicine: Pleiotropic Role of DNA Methylation

Accumulating knowledge has been achieved on DNA methylation participating in numerous cellular processes and multiple human diseases; however, few studies have addressed the pleiotropic role of DNA methylation in Chinese herbal medicine (CHM). CHM has been used worldwide for the prevention and treatment of multiple diseases. Newly developed epigenetic techniques have brought great opportunities for the development of CHM. In this review, we summarize the DNA methylation studies and portray the pleiotropic role of DNA methylation in CHM. DNA methylation serves as a mediator participating in plant responses to environmental factors, and thus affecting CHM medicinal plants growth and bioactive compound biosynthesis which are vital for therapeutic effects. Furthermore, DNA methylation helps to uncover the pharmaceutical mechanisms of CHM formulae, herbs, and herbal-derived compounds. It also provides scientific validation for constitution theory and other essential issues of CHM. This newly developed field of DNA methylation is up-and-coming to address many complicated scientific questions of CHM; it thus not only promotes disease treatment but also facilitates health maintenance.

Targeting long non coding RNA by natural products: Implications for cancer therapy

In spite of achieving substantial progress in its therapeutic strategies, cancer-associated prevalence and mortality are persistently rising globally. However, most malignant cancers either cannot be adequately diagnosed at the primary phase or resist against multiple treatments such as chemotherapy, surgery, radiotherapy as well as targeting therapy. In recent decades, overwhelming evidences have provided more convincing words on the undeniable roles of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) in incidence and development of various cancer types. Recently, phytochemical and nutraceutical compounds have received a great deal of attention due to their inhibitory and stimulatory effects on oncogenic and tumor suppressor lncRNAs respectively that finally may lead to attenuate various processes of cancer cells such as growth, proliferation, metastasis and invasion. Therefore, application of phytochemicals with anticancer characteristics can be considered as an innovative approach for treating cancer and increasing the sensitivity of cancer cells to standard prevailing therapies. The purpose of this review was to investigate the effect of various phytochemicals on regulation of lncRNAs in different human cancer and evaluate their capabilities for cancer treatment and prevention.

Ginsenoside-Rg3 inhibits the proliferation and invasion of hepatoma carcinoma cells via regulating long non-coding RNA HOX antisense intergenic

Ginsenoside Rg3, a natural compound, has been reported to function as an anticancer agent for hepatoma carcinoma, while the mechanisms underlying the anticancer effects are not clear. Therefore, the objective of our study was to explore the impact of RG3 on cell migration and invasion by regulating the lncRNA HOX antisense intergenic (HOTAIR) expression involving PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. qRT-PCR was utilized to measure the mRNA expression of HOTAIR. Furthermore, HOTAIR overexpression plasmids were transfected to SMMC-7721 and SK-Hep-1 cells. Additionally, MTT assay was used to evaluate the proliferation of transfected cells. The scratch and transwell assays were used to determine the migration and invasion ability of the cell. The protein levels were determined with Western blot. lncRNA HOTAIR was overexpressed in SMMC-7721 and SK-Hep-1 cells. Ginsenoside-Rg3 reduced the level of lncRNA HOTAIR. Overexpressed lncRNA HOTAIR offset ginsenoside-Rg3 inhibited proliferation, migration and invasion of HCC cells. Furthermore, ginsenoside-Rg3 decreased the expression of p-AKT, p-PI3K, matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP2) and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP9), which was reversed after the treatment of HOTAIR. LncRNA HOTAIR was overexpressed in SMMC-7721 cells. Ginsenoside-Rg3 could reduce the expression of lncRNA HOTAIR, resulting in the inhibited cell proliferation, migration and invasion. Furthermore, ginsenoside-Rg3 inhibited cell proliferation and invasion ability through the PI3k/AKT pathway. Thus, ginsenoside-Rg3 might be a potential and effective treatment for HCC.

Regulation of Long Non-Coding RNAs by Plant Secondary Metabolites: A Novel Anticancer Therapeutic Approach

Simple Summary

Cancer is caused by the rapid and uncontrolled growth of cells that eventually lead to tumor formation. Genetic and epigenetic alterations are among the most critical factors in the onset of carcinoma. Phytochemicals are a group of natural compounds that play an essential role in cancer prevention and treatment. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are potential therapeutic targets of bioactive phytochemicals, and these compounds could regulate the expression of lncRNAs directly and indirectly. Here, we critically evaluate in vitro and in vivo anticancer effects of phytochemicals in numerous human cancers via regulation of lncRNA expression and their downstream target genes.

Abstract

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are a class of non-coding RNAs that play an essential role in various cellular activities, such as differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis. Dysregulation of lncRNAs serves a fundamental role in the progression and initiation of various diseases, including cancer. Precision medicine is a suitable and optimal treatment method for cancer so that based on each patient’s genetic content, a specific treatment or drug is prescribed. The rapid advancement of science and technology in recent years has led to many successes in this particular treatment. Phytochemicals are a group of natural compounds extracted from fruits, vegetables, and plants. Through the downregulation of oncogenic lncRNAs or upregulation of tumor suppressor lncRNAs, these bioactive compounds can inhibit metastasis, proliferation, invasion, migration, and cancer cells. These natural products can be a novel and alternative strategy for cancer treatment and improve tumor cells’ sensitivity to standard adjuvant therapies. This review will discuss the antineoplastic effects of bioactive plant secondary metabolites (phytochemicals) via regulation of expression of lncRNAs in various human cancers and their potential for the treatment and prevention of human cancers.

Ginsenoside Rg3 Prevents Oncogenic Long Noncoding RNA ATXN8OS from Inhibiting Tumor-Suppressive microRNA-424-5p in Breast Cancer Cells

Ginsenoside Rg3 exerts antiproliferation activity on cancer cells by regulating diverse noncoding RNAs. However, little is known about the role of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) or their relationship with competitive endogenous RNA (ceRNA) in Rg3-treated cancer cells. Here, a lncRNA (ATXN8OS) was found to be downregulated via Rg3-mediated promoter hypermethylation in MCF-7 breast cancer cells. SiRNA-induced downregulation of ATXN8OS decreased cell proliferation but increased apoptosis, suggesting that the noncoding RNA possessed proproliferation activity. An in silico search for potential ATXN8OS-targeting microRNAs (miRs) identified a promising candidate (miR-424-5p) based on its high binding score. As expected, miR-424-5p suppressed proliferation and stimulated apoptosis of the MCF-7 cells. The in silico miR-target-gene prediction identified 200 potential target genes of miR-424-5p, which were subsequently narrowed down to seven that underwent hypermethylation at their promoter by Rg3. Among them, three genes (EYA1, DACH1, and CHRM3) were previously known oncogenes and were proven to be oppositely regulated by ATXN8OS and miR-424-5p. When taken together, Rg3 downregulated ATXN8OS that inhibited the tumor-suppressive miR-424-5p, leading to the downregulation of the oncogenic target genes.

20(S)-Rg3 upregulates FDFT1 via reducing miR-4425 to inhibit ovarian cancer progression

We previously found that ginsenoside 20(S)-Rg3 diminishes the proliferative and invasive capacities of ovarian cancer cells by decreasing miR-4425 level. Yet the mechanism of action of miR-4425 in ovarian cancer remains unclear. Here we report that miR-4425 is upregulated in ovarian cancer tissues relative to normal ovarian tissues, and transfection of miR-4425 inhibitor impairs the proliferation, migration and invasion of SKOV3 and 3AO ovarian cancer cells. Further, miR-4425 antagomiR reduces cell proliferation in a subcutaneous SKOV3 xenograft model using BALB/c nude mice. We identifies farnesyl-diphosphate farnesyltransferase 1 (FDFT1) as a direct target of miR-4425 by Western blotting and a luciferase reporter assay. Forced expression of FDFT1 via transfection of an FDFT1-expressing plasmid into ovarian cancer cells not only retards cell proliferation, motility and invasiveness, but also negates the tumorigenic properties of a miR-4425 mimic. By contrast, silencing of FDFT1 by siRNAs abrogates suppression of the proliferation, migration and invasion of ovarian cancer cells treated with a miR-4425 inhibitor. Finally, transfection of either a miR-4425 mimic or FDFT1 siRNAs into 20(S)-Rg3-treated ovarian cancer cells counteracts the tumor-inhibitory activity of the ginsenoside. In conclusion, 20(S)-Rg3 exerts anti-ovarian cancer activity by downregulating oncogenic miR-4425 that inhibits the expression of the tumor suppressor gene FDFT1. These results expand our current understanding of the molecular pathways leading to ovarian cancer progression, and unveil the mechanism of action of 20(S)-Rg3 in ovarian cancer inhibition.

20(S)-Ginsenoside Rg3 Promotes HeLa Cell Apoptosis by Regulating Autophagy

20(S)-Ginsenoside Rg3 (GRg3) has various bioactivities including anti-cancer effects and inhibition of autophagy. However, no reports have investigated the appearance of autophagy or the connection between autophagy and apoptosis in HeLa cells treated with 20(S)-GRg3. Cell viability was measured by CCK-8 (cell counting kit-8) assays. Apoptosis and the cell cycle were analyzed by Hoechst 33342 staining and flow cytometry. Apoptotic pathways were examined by ROS (reactive oxygen species) determination and rhodamine 123 assays. Western blot analysis was used to determine changes in protein levels. Autophagy induction was monitored by acidic vesicular organelle staining and EGFP-LC3 transfection. 20(S)-GRg3 inhibited autophagy of cells in a starved state, making it impossible for cells to maintain a steady state through autophagy, and then induced apoptosis. 20(S)-GRg3 blocked the late stage of autophagy (fusion of lysosomes and degradation of autophagic lysosomes), including a decrease in acidic vesicular organelle fluorescence, increased LC3 I–II conversion, accumulation of EGFP-LC3 fluorescence, GFP-mRFP-LC3 red-green fluorescence ratio, degradation of the substrate p62, and loss of the balance between autophagy and apoptosis, which induced apoptosis. ROS increased, the mitochondrial membrane potential decreased, apoptotic inducer AIF was released from mitochondria, and nuclear transfer occurred, triggering a series of subsequent apoptotic events. Autophagy inducer rapamycin inhibited the apoptosis induced by 20(S)-GRg3, whereas autophagy inhibitor BA1 promoted apoptosis induced by 20(S)-GRg3. Therefore, 20(S)-GRg3 promoted HeLa cell apoptosis by regulating autophagy. In the autophagic state, 20(S)-GRg3 can be used as a novel autophagy inhibitor in synergy with tumor-blocking therapies such as chemotherapy, which supports its application in the medical field.

Ginsenoside Rg3 inhibits growth and epithelial-mesenchymal transition of human oral squamous carcinoma cells by down-regulating miR-221

Ginsenoside Rg3, isolated from the roots of Panax ginseng, has been found to exert anti-cancer activity on multiple human cancers. However, there is no any literature available about the effect of Rg3 on oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). This study investigated the possible anti-cancer effects of Rg3 on OSCC, as well as the possible molecular mechanisms. In vitro, cell viability and proliferation were respectively detected by CCK-8 assay and BrdU assay. Cell apoptosis was detected by Annexin V-FITC/PI assay. Cell transfection was used to change the expression of miR-221 and TIMP3. qRT-PCR and western blotting were performed to measure the expression of molecules involving in cell apoptosis, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) process, PI3K/AKT pathway and MAPK/ERK pathway. In vivo, OSCC orthotopic murine model was established and tumor volumes were measured. We found that Rg3 treatment inhibited viability, proliferation and EMT process of human OSCC SCC-9 and HSC-5 cells, but promoted cell apoptosis. miR-221 was highly expressed in OSCC tissues and cells. Rg3 reduced the expression of miR-221 in OSCC cells. Up-regulation of miR-221 abrogated the effects of Rg3 on SCC-9 and HSC-5 cell viability, proliferation, apoptosis and EMT process. TIMP3 was lowly expressed in OSCC tissues and cells, which was a direct target gene of miR-221. Rg3 inactivated PI3K/AKT and MAPK/ERK pathways in SCC-9 cells by up-regulating TIMP3. In vivo, Rg3 reduced the tumor volume of OSCC orthotopic murine model. In conclusion, Rg3 exerted anti-cancer effects on OSCC might be via down-regulating miR-221, up-regulating TIMP3, and then inactivating PI3K/AKT and MAPK/ERK pathways.

Ginsenoside Rg3 and Korean Red Ginseng extract epigenetically regulate the tumor-related long noncoding RNAs RFX3-AS1 and STXBP5-AS1

Background

Ginsenoside Rg3, a derivative of steroidal saponins abundant in ginseng, has a range of effects on cancer cells, including anti-cell proliferation and anti-inflammation activity. Here, we investigate two long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), STXBP5-AS1 and RFX3-AS1, which are hypomethylated and hypermethylated in the promoter region by Rg3 in MCF-7 cancer cells.

Methods

The lncRNAs epigenetically regulated by Rg3 were mined using methylation array analysis. The effect of the lncRNAs on the apoptosis and proliferation of MCF-7 cells was monitored in the presence of Rg3 or Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) extract after deregulating the lncRNAs. The expression of the lncRNAs and their target genes was examined using qPCR and Western blot analysis. The association between the expression of the target genes and the survival rate of breast cancer patients was analyzed using the Kaplan-Meier Plotter platform.

Results

STXBP5-AS1 and RFX3-AS1 exhibited anti- and pro-proliferation effects, respectively, in the cancer cells, and the effects of Rg3 and KRG extract on apoptosis and cell proliferation were weakened after deregulating the lncRNAs. Of the genes located close to STXBP5-AS1 and RFX3-AS1 on the chromosome, STXBP5, GRM1, RFX3, and SLC1A1 were regulated by the lncRNAs on the RNA and protein level. Breast cancer patients that exhibited a higher expression of the target genes of the lncRNAs had a higher metastasis-free survival rate.

Conclusion

The current study is the first to identify lncRNAs that are regulated by the presence of Rg3 and KRG extract and that subsequently contribute to inhibiting the proliferation of cancer cells.

Ginsenoside Rg3: Potential Molecular Targets and Therapeutic Indication in Metastatic Breast Cancer

Breast cancer is still one of the most prevalent cancers and a leading cause of cancer death worldwide. The key challenge with cancer treatment is the choice of the best therapeutic agents with the least possible toxicities on the patient. Recently, attention has been drawn to herbal compounds, in particular ginsenosides, extracted from the root of the Ginseng plant. In various studies, significant anti-cancer properties of ginsenosides have been reported in different cancers. The mode of action of ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3) in in vitro and in vivo breast cancer models and its value as an anti-cancer treatment for breast cancer will be reviewed.

Genome-Wide Methylation Analysis Identifies NOX4 and KDM5A as Key Regulators in Inhibiting Breast Cancer Cell Proliferation by Ginsenoside Rg3

Ginsenoside Rg3 is a key metabolite of ginseng and is known to inhibit cancer cell growth. However, the epigenetics of CpG methylation and its regulatory mechanism have yet to be determined. Genome-wide methylation analysis of MCF-7 breast cancer cells treated with Rg3 was performed to identify epigenetically regulated genes and pathways. The effect of Rg3 on apoptosis and cell proliferation was examined by a colony formation assay and a dye-based cell proliferation assay. The association between methylation and gene expression was monitored by RT-PCR and Western blot analysis. Genome-wide methylation analysis identified the "cell morphology"-related pathway as the top network. Rg3 induced late stage apoptosis but inhibited cell proliferation up to 60%. Hypermethylated TRMT1L, PSMC6 and NOX4 were downregulated by Rg3, while hypomethylated ST3GAL4, RNLS and KDM5A were upregulated. In accordance, downregulation of NOX4 by siRNA abrogated the cell growth effect of Rg3, while the effect was opposite for KDM5A. Notably, breast cancer patients with a higher expression of NOX4 and KDM5A showed poor and good prognosis of survival, respectively. In conclusion, Rg3 deregulated tumor-related genes through alteration of the epigenetic methylation level leading to growth inhibition of cancer cells.