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Jeyamogan S, Leventhal JR, Mathew JM, Zhang ZJ. CD4 +CD25 +FOXP3 + regulatory T cells: a potential "armor" to shield "transplanted allografts" in the war against ischemia reperfusion injury. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1270300. [PMID: 37868962 PMCID: PMC10587564 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1270300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite the advances in therapeutic interventions, solid organ transplantation (SOT) remains the "gold standard" treatment for patients with end-stage organ failure. Recently, vascularized composite allotransplantation (VCA) has reemerged as a feasible treatment option for patients with complex composite tissue defects. In both SOT and VCA, ischemia reperfusion injury (IRI) is inevitable and is a predominant factor that can adversely affect transplant outcome by potentiating early graft dysfunction and/or graft rejection. Restoration of oxygenated blood supply to an organ which was previously hypoxic or ischemic for a period of time triggers cellular oxidative stress, production of both, pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, infiltration of innate immune cells and amplifies adaptive alloimmune responses in the affected allograft. Currently, Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved drugs for the treatment of IRI are unavailable, therefore an efficacious therapeutic modality to prevent, reduce and/or alleviate allograft damages caused by IRI induced inflammation is warranted to achieve the best-possible transplant outcome among recipients. The tolerogenic capacity of CD4+CD25+FOXP3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs), have been extensively studied in the context of transplant rejection, autoimmunity, and cancer. It was not until recently that Tregs have been recognized as a potential cell therapeutic candidate to be exploited for the prevention and/or treatment of IRI, owing to their immunomodulatory potential. Tregs can mitigate cellular oxidative stress, produce anti-inflammatory cytokines, promote wound healing, and tissue repair and prevent the infiltration of pro-inflammatory immune cells in injured tissues. By using strategic approaches to increase the number of Tregs and to promote targeted delivery, the outcome of SOT and VCA can be improved. This review focuses on two sections: (a) the therapeutic potential of Tregs in preventing and mitigating IRI in the context of SOT and VCA and (b) novel strategies on how Tregs could be utilized for the prevention and/or treatment of IRI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shareni Jeyamogan
- Department of Surgery, Comprehensive Transplant Center Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Joseph R. Leventhal
- Department of Surgery, Comprehensive Transplant Center Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
- Simpson Querrey Institute for BioNanotechnology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - James M. Mathew
- Department of Surgery, Comprehensive Transplant Center Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
- Simpson Querrey Institute for BioNanotechnology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Zheng Jenny Zhang
- Department of Surgery, Comprehensive Transplant Center Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
- Simpson Querrey Institute for BioNanotechnology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
- Microsurgery and Pre-Clinical Research Core, Comprehensive Transplant Center, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
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2
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Svirshchevskaya EV, Konovalova MV, Snezhkov EV, Poltavtseva RA, Akopov SB. Chemokine Homeostasis in Healthy Volunteers and during Pancreatic and Colorectal Tumor Growth in Murine Models. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2022; 44:4987-4999. [PMID: 36286054 PMCID: PMC9600007 DOI: 10.3390/cimb44100339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2022] [Revised: 10/11/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemokines are involved in the humoral regulation of body homeostasis. Changes in the blood level of chemokines were found in cancer, atherosclerosis, diabetes, and other systemic diseases. It is essential to distinguish the effects of co-morbid pathologies and cancer on the level of chemokines in the blood. We aimed to analyze, by multiplex cytometry, the levels of chemokines in the blood of healthy young volunteers as well as of intact mice and mice with CT26 colon and Pan02 pancreatic tumors. Two types of chemokines were identified both in human and murine plasmas: homeostatic ones, which were found in high concentrations (>100 pg/mL), and inducible ones, which can be undetectable or determined at very low levels (0−100 pg/mL). There was a high variability in the chemokine levels, both in healthy humans and mice. To analyze chemokine levels during tumor growth, C57BL/6 and BALB/c were inoculated with Pan02 or CT26 tumor cells, accordingly. The tumors significantly differed in the growth and the mortality of mice. However, the blood chemokine levels did not change in tumor-bearing mice until the very late stages. Taken collectively, blood chemokine level is highly variable and reflects in situ homeostasis. Care should be taken when considering chemokines as prognostic parameters or therapeutic targets in cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena V. Svirshchevskaya
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry RAS, 16/10 Miklukho-Maklaya Str., 117997 Moscow, Russia
- National Medical Research Center of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Perinatology Named after Academician V. I. Kulakov of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, 4 Oparina Str., 117997 Moscow, Russia
- Correspondence:
| | - Mariya V. Konovalova
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry RAS, 16/10 Miklukho-Maklaya Str., 117997 Moscow, Russia
| | - Eugene V. Snezhkov
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry RAS, 16/10 Miklukho-Maklaya Str., 117997 Moscow, Russia
| | - Rimma A. Poltavtseva
- National Medical Research Center of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Perinatology Named after Academician V. I. Kulakov of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, 4 Oparina Str., 117997 Moscow, Russia
| | - Sergey B. Akopov
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry RAS, 16/10 Miklukho-Maklaya Str., 117997 Moscow, Russia
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3
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Luo D, Liu D, Rao C, Shi S, Zeng X, Liu S, Jiang H, Liu L, Zhang Z, Lu X. Raised SPINK1 levels play a role in angiogenesis and the transendothelial migration of ALL cells. Sci Rep 2022; 12:2999. [PMID: 35194087 PMCID: PMC8864021 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-06946-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study was designed to assess whether raised Serine protease inhibitor Kazal type 1 (SPINK1) expressions modulates angiogenesis. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) exposed to SPINK1 were noted to exhibit raised expressions of interleukin-8 (IL-8) as well as VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 cell adhesion molecules in a dose-dependent manner. In co-culture system of HUVECs and Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) cells, SPINK1 exposure also resulted in enhanced endothelial cell motility and ALL cells trans-endothelial migration. High concentrations of SPINK1 caused in vitro cellular reorganization into tubes in Matrigel-cultured HUVECs and induced in vivo vascularization and brain infiltration of NOD/SCID ALL model mice. The further transcriptomic analysis indicated that SPINK1 treatment altered several biological processes of endothelial cells and led to activation of the MAPK pathway. This study is the first to determine the neovascularization effects of raised SPINK1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong Luo
- Medical Laboratory, Dongguan Children's Hospital Affiliated to Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan City, Guangdong Province, China.,Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Dongguan Institute of Pediatrics, Dongguan, Guangdong, China
| | - Dongqiang Liu
- Department of Hematology, Dongguan Children's Hospital Affiliated to Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan City, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Chunbao Rao
- Medical Laboratory, Dongguan Children's Hospital Affiliated to Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan City, Guangdong Province, China.,Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Dongguan Institute of Pediatrics, Dongguan, Guangdong, China
| | - Shanshan Shi
- Department of Neurology, Dongguan Children's Hospital Affiliated to Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan, Guangdong, China
| | - Xiaomei Zeng
- Medical Laboratory, Dongguan Children's Hospital Affiliated to Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan City, Guangdong Province, China.,Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Dongguan Institute of Pediatrics, Dongguan, Guangdong, China
| | - Sha Liu
- Department of Hematology-Oncology, Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Center, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Hua Jiang
- Department of Hematology-Oncology, Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Center, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Lishi Liu
- Department of Hematology, Dongguan Children's Hospital Affiliated to Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan City, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Zhenhong Zhang
- Department of Hematology, Dongguan Children's Hospital Affiliated to Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan City, Guangdong Province, China.
| | - Xiaomei Lu
- Medical Laboratory, Dongguan Children's Hospital Affiliated to Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan City, Guangdong Province, China. .,Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Dongguan Institute of Pediatrics, Dongguan, Guangdong, China.
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4
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Xia J, Wang M, Zhu Y, Bu C, Li T. Differential mRNA and long noncoding RNA expression profiles in pediatric B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia patients. BMC Pediatr 2022; 22:10. [PMID: 34980027 PMCID: PMC8722040 DOI: 10.1186/s12887-021-03073-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2021] [Accepted: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are transcripts longer than 200 nucleotides (nt) that are involved in the pathogenesis and development of various cancers including B cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL). To determine the potential roles of lncRNAs involved in pathogenesis of B-ALL, we analyzed the expression profile of lncRNAs and mRNAs in B-ALL, respectively, and constructed lncRNAs/mRNAs interaction network. METHODS We performed RNA sequencing of 10 non-leukemic blood disease donors and 10 B-ALL patients for Gene Ontology (GO) and the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis. Interactions among mRNAs were predicted using the STRING database. Quantitative real time PCR (qRT-PCR) was performed to verify the RNA-seq data of lncRNAs and mRNAs. Potential functions of subtype-specific lncRNAs were determined by using coexpression-based analysis on distally (trans-pattern) located protein-coding genes. RESULTS A total of 1813 differentially expressed transcripts (DETs) and 2203 lncRNAs were identified. Moreover, 10 dysregulated lncRNAs and 10 mRNAs were randomly selected, and further assessed by RT-qPCR in vitro. Go and KEGG analysis demonstrated that the differentially expressed mRNAs were most closely associated with myeloid leukocyte activation and in transcriptional misregulation in cancer, respectively. In addition, co-expression analysis demonstrated that these lncRNAs, including MSTRG.27994.3, MSTRG.21740.1, ENST00000456341, MSTRG.14224.1 and MSTRG.20153.1, may mediate the pathogenesis and development of B-ALL via lncRNA-mRNA network interactions. CONCLUSIONS These results showed that several mRNAs and lncRNAs are aberrantly expressed in the bone marrow of B-ALL patients and play potential roles in B-ALL development, and be useful for diagnostic and/or prognostic purposes in pediatric B-ALL. DATA AVAILABILITY The datasets used during our study are available through HARVARD Dataverse Persistent ID doi: https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/LK9T4Z .
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Xia
- Department of Pediatric Laboratory, The Affiliated Wuxi Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, 214000, Jiangsu, China
| | - Mengjie Wang
- Department of hematology & oncology, The Affiliated Wuxi Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, 214000, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yi Zhu
- Department of hematology & oncology, The Affiliated Wuxi Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, 214000, Jiangsu, China
| | - Chaozhi Bu
- Center of Reproductive Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Medicine, Research Institute for Reproductive Health and Genetic Diseases, The Affiliated Wuxi Matemity and Child Health Care Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, 214002, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Tianyu Li
- Department of hematology & oncology, The Affiliated Wuxi Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, 214000, Jiangsu, China.
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5
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Lužnik Z, Anchouche S, Dana R, Yin J. Regulatory T Cells in Angiogenesis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2021; 205:2557-2565. [PMID: 33168598 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2000574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 08/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are crucial mediators of immune homeostasis. They regulate immune response by suppressing inflammation and promoting self-tolerance. In addition to their immunoregulatory role, a growing body of evidence highlights the dynamic role of Tregs in angiogenesis, the process of forming new blood vessels. Although angiogenesis is critically important for normal tissue regeneration, it is also a hallmark of pathological processes, including malignancy and chronic inflammation. Interestingly, the role of Tregs in angiogenesis has been shown to be highly tissue- and context-specific and as a result can yield either pro- or antiangiogenic effects. For these reasons, there is considerable interest in determining the molecular underpinnings of Treg-mediated modulation of angiogenesis in different disease states. The present review summarizes the role of Tregs in angiogenesis and mechanisms by which Tregs regulate angiogenesis and discusses how these mechanisms differ in homeostatic and pathological settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zala Lužnik
- Department of Ophthalmology, Schepens Eye Research Institute of Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114.,Eye Hospital, University Medical Centre, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; and
| | - Sonia Anchouche
- Department of Ophthalmology, Schepens Eye Research Institute of Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114.,Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3G 2M1, Canada
| | - Reza Dana
- Department of Ophthalmology, Schepens Eye Research Institute of Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114;
| | - Jia Yin
- Department of Ophthalmology, Schepens Eye Research Institute of Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114;
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Kreps LM, Addison CL. Targeting Intercellular Communication in the Bone Microenvironment to Prevent Disseminated Tumor Cell Escape from Dormancy and Bone Metastatic Tumor Growth. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22062911. [PMID: 33805598 PMCID: PMC7998601 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22062911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2021] [Revised: 03/06/2021] [Accepted: 03/11/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Metastasis to the bone is a common feature of many cancers including those of the breast, prostate, lung, thyroid and kidney. Once tumors metastasize to the bone, they are essentially incurable. Bone metastasis is a complex process involving not only intravasation of tumor cells from the primary tumor into circulation, but extravasation from circulation into the bone where they meet an environment that is generally suppressive of their growth. The bone microenvironment can inhibit the growth of disseminated tumor cells (DTC) by inducing dormancy of the DTC directly and later on following formation of a micrometastatic tumour mass by inhibiting metastatic processes including angiogenesis, bone remodeling and immunosuppressive cell functions. In this review we will highlight some of the mechanisms mediating DTC dormancy and the complex relationships which occur between tumor cells and bone resident cells in the bone metastatic microenvironment. These inter-cellular interactions may be important targets to consider for development of novel effective therapies for the prevention or treatment of bone metastases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren M. Kreps
- Cancer Therapeutics Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, ON K1H 8L6, Canada;
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1H 8L6, Canada
| | - Christina L. Addison
- Cancer Therapeutics Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, ON K1H 8L6, Canada;
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1H 8L6, Canada
- Department of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1H 8L6, Canada
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-613-737-7700
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7
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Mirlekar B, Pylayeva-Gupta Y. IL-12 Family Cytokines in Cancer and Immunotherapy. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:E167. [PMID: 33418929 PMCID: PMC7825035 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13020167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Revised: 12/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The IL-12 family cytokines are a group of unique heterodimeric cytokines that include IL-12, IL-23, IL-27, IL-35 and, most recently, IL-39. Recent studies have solidified the importance of IL-12 cytokines in shaping innate and adaptive immune responses in cancer and identified multipronged roles for distinct IL-12 family members, ranging from effector to regulatory immune functions. These cytokines could serve as promising candidates for the development of immunomodulatory therapeutic approaches. Overall, IL-12 can be considered an effector cytokine and has been found to engage anti-tumor immunity by activating the effector Th1 response, which is required for the activation of cytotoxic T and NK cells and tumor clearance. IL-23 and IL-27 play dual roles in tumor immunity, as they can both activate effector immune responses and promote tumor growth by favoring immune suppression. IL-35 is a potent regulatory cytokine and plays a largely pro-tumorigenic role by inhibiting effector T cells. In this review, we summarize the recent findings on IL-12 family cytokines in the control of tumor growth with an emphasis primarily on immune regulation. We underscore the clinical implications for the use of these cytokines either in the setting of monotherapy or in combination with other conventional therapies for the more effective treatment of malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhalchandra Mirlekar
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA;
| | - Yuliya Pylayeva-Gupta
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA;
- Department of Genetics, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
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8
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Scott EN, Gocher AM, Workman CJ, Vignali DAA. Regulatory T Cells: Barriers of Immune Infiltration Into the Tumor Microenvironment. Front Immunol 2021; 12:702726. [PMID: 34177968 PMCID: PMC8222776 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.702726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are key immunosuppressive cells that promote tumor growth by hindering the effector immune response. Tregs utilize multiple suppressive mechanisms to inhibit pro-inflammatory responses within the tumor microenvironment (TME) by inhibition of effector function and immune cell migration, secretion of inhibitory cytokines, metabolic disruption and promotion of metastasis. In turn, Tregs are being targeted in the clinic either alone or in combination with other immunotherapies, in efforts to overcome the immunosuppressive TME and increase anti-tumor effects. However, it is now appreciated that Tregs not only suppress cells intratumorally via direct engagement, but also serve as key interactors in the peritumor, stroma, vasculature and lymphatics to limit anti-tumor immune responses prior to tumor infiltration. We will review the suppressive mechanisms that Tregs utilize to alter immune and non-immune cells outside and within the TME and discuss how these mechanisms collectively allow Tregs to create and promote a physical and biological barrier, resulting in an immune-excluded or limited tumor microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen N Scott
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, United States.,Tumor Microenvironment Center, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center (UPMC) Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, PA, United States.,Graduate Program of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Angela M Gocher
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, United States.,Tumor Microenvironment Center, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center (UPMC) Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Creg J Workman
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, United States.,Tumor Microenvironment Center, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center (UPMC) Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Dario A A Vignali
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, United States.,Tumor Microenvironment Center, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center (UPMC) Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, PA, United States.,Cancer Immunology and Immunotherapy Program, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
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9
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CC Chemokines in a Tumor: A Review of Pro-Cancer and Anti-Cancer Properties of the Ligands of Receptors CCR1, CCR2, CCR3, and CCR4. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21218412. [PMID: 33182504 PMCID: PMC7665155 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21218412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2020] [Revised: 11/06/2020] [Accepted: 11/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
CC chemokines, a subfamily of 27 chemotactic cytokines, are a component of intercellular communication, which is crucial for the functioning of the tumor microenvironment. Although many individual chemokines have been well researched, there has been no comprehensive review presenting the role of all known human CC chemokines in the hallmarks of cancer, and this paper aims at filling this gap. The first part of this review discusses the importance of CCL1, CCL3, CCL4, CCL5, CCL18, CCL19, CCL20, CCL21, CCL25, CCL27, and CCL28 in cancer. Here, we discuss the significance of CCL2 (MCP-1), CCL7, CCL8, CCL11, CCL13, CCL14, CCL15, CCL16, CCL17, CCL22, CCL23, CCL24, and CCL26. The presentation of each chemokine includes its physiological function and then the role in tumor, including proliferation, drug resistance, migration, invasion, and organ-specific metastasis of tumor cells, as well as the effects on angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis. We also discuss the effects of each CC chemokine on the recruitment of cancer-associated cells to the tumor niche (eosinophils, myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC), tumor-associated macrophages (TAM), tumor-associated neutrophils (TAN), regulatory T cells (Treg)). On the other hand, we also present the anti-cancer properties of CC chemokines, consisting in the recruitment of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL).
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