Systemic inflammatory response syndrome is triggered by mitochondrial damage (Review)

Oxidative Stress and Inflammation in Myocardial Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury: Protective Effects of Plant-Derived Natural Active Compounds

Acute myocardial infarction (AMI) remains a leading cause of death among patients with cardiovascular diseases. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) has been the preferred clinical treatment for AMI due to its safety and efficiency. However, research indicates that the rapid restoration of myocardial oxygen supply following PCI can lead to secondary myocardial injury, termed myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury (MIRI), posing a grave threat to patient survival. Despite ongoing efforts, the mechanisms underlying MIRI are not yet fully elucidated. Among them, oxidative stress and inflammation stand out as critical pathophysiological mechanisms, playing significant roles in MIRI. Natural compounds have shown strong clinical therapeutic potential due to their high efficacy, availability, and low side effects. Many current studies indicate that natural compounds can mitigate MIRI by reducing oxidative stress and inflammatory responses. Therefore, this paper reviews the mechanisms of oxidative stress and inflammation during MIRI and the role of natural compounds in intervening in these processes, aiming to provide a basis and reference for future research and development of drugs for treating MIRI.

Tumor-derived mitochondrial formyl peptides suppress tumor immunity through modification of the tumor microenvironment

Mitochondrial N-formylpeptides are released from damaged or dead cells to the extracellular spaces and cause inflammatory responses. The role of mitochondrial N-formylpeptides in aseptic systemic inflammatory response syndromes induced by trauma or cardiac surgery has been well investigated. However, there are no reports regarding the role of mitochondrial N-formylpeptides in cancer. In this study, we investigated the role of tumor cell-derived mitochondrial N-formylpeptides in anti-tumor immunity using knockout murine tumor cells of mitochondrial methionyl-tRNA formyltransferase (MTFMT), which catalyze N-formylation of mitochondrial DNA-encoded proteins. There was no apparent difference among the wild-type and MTFMT-knockout clones of E.G7-OVA cells with respect to morphology, mitochondrial dynamics, glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation, oxygen consumption rate, or in vitro cell growth. In contrast, in vivo tumor growth of MTFMT-knockout cells was slower than that of wild-type cells. A reduced number of myeloid-derived suppressor cells and an increase of cytotoxic T-lymphocytes in the tumor tissues were observed in the MTFMT-knockout tumors. These results suggested that tumor cell-derived mitochondrial N-formylpeptides had a negative role in the host anti-tumor immunity through modification of the tumor microenvironment.

Mitochondrial dysfunction in sepsis: mechanisms and therapeutic perspectives

Sepsis is a severe medical condition characterized by a systemic inflammatory response, often culminating in multiple organ dysfunction and high mortality rates. In recent years, there has been a growing recognition of the pivotal role played by mitochondrial damage in driving the progression of sepsis. Various factors contribute to mitochondrial impairment during sepsis, encompassing mechanisms such as reactive nitrogen/oxygen species generation, mitophagy inhibition, mitochondrial dynamics change, and mitochondrial membrane permeabilization. Damaged mitochondria actively participate in shaping the inflammatory milieu by triggering key signaling pathways, including those mediated by Toll-like receptors, NOD-like receptors, and cyclic GMP-AMP synthase. Consequently, there has been a surge of interest in developing therapeutic strategies targeting mitochondria to mitigate septic pathogenesis. This review aims to delve into the intricate mechanisms underpinning mitochondrial dysfunction during sepsis and its significant impact on immune dysregulation. Moreover, we spotlight promising mitochondria-targeted interventions that have demonstrated therapeutic efficacy in preclinical sepsis models.

Mitochondrial Damage in Sepsis

Mitochondria not only generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and act as the powerhouse of the cell but also contribute to host defense by producing reactive oxygen species. Therefore, mitochondrial damage in sepsis directly results in a shortage of energy currency and dysregulation of the immune system. Other than those, mitochondrial damage results in the release of highly dangerous mitochondrial DNA, facilitating acidosis by modulating the metabolism and inducing programmed cell death, thereby facilitating disease progression in sepsis. Various forms of cell death are induced by mitochondrial damage. Aponecrosis is a secondary conversion from apoptosis to necrosis. Although apoptosis is initially intended, it cannot be completed due to ATP depletion from mitochondrial damage, ultimately leading to inflammatory necrosis. Besides such accidental cell death, programmed inflammation-inducing cell deaths such as necroptosis, ferroptosis, and pyroptosis are induced by mitochondrial damage in sepsis. Based on these findings, the regulation of mitochondrial damage holds promise for the development of new therapeutic approaches for sepsis.

A method for measuring mitochondrial DNA copy number in pediatric populations

The mitochondrion is a multifunctional organelle that modulates multiple systems critical for homeostasis during pathophysiological stress. Variation in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) copy number (mtDNAcn), a key mitochondrial change associated with chronic stress, is an emerging biomarker for disease pathology and progression. mtDNAcn can be quantified from whole blood samples using qPCR to determine the ratio of mtDNA to nuclear DNA. However, the collection of blood samples in pediatric populations, particularly in infants and young children, can be technically challenging, yield much smaller volume samples, and can be distressing for the patients and their caregivers. Therefore, we have validated a mtDNAcn assay utilizing DNA from simple buccal swabs (Isohelix SK-2S) and report here it's performance in specimens from infants (age = <12 months). Utilizing qPCR to amplify ∼200 bp regions from two mitochondrial (ND1, ND6) and two nuclear (BECN1, NEB) genes, we demonstrated absolute (100%) concordance with results from low-pass whole genome sequencing (lpWGS). We believe that this method overcomes key obstacles to measuring mtDNAcn in pediatric populations and creates the possibility for development of clinical assays to measure mitochondrial change during pathophysiological stress.

Multi-Modal Prehabilitation in Thoracic Surgery: From Basic Concepts to Practical Modalities

Over the last two decades, the invasiveness of thoracic surgery has decreased along with technological advances and better diagnostic tools, whereas the patient's comorbidities and frailty patterns have increased, as well as the number of early cancer stages that could benefit from curative resection. Poor aerobic fitness, nutritional defects, sarcopenia and "toxic" behaviors such as sedentary behavior, smoking and alcohol consumption are modifiable risk factors for major postoperative complications. The process of enhancing patients' physiological reserve in anticipation for surgery is referred to as prehabilitation. Components of prehabilitation programs include optimization of medical treatment, prescription of structured exercise program, correction of nutritional deficits and patient's education to adopt healthier behaviors. All patients may benefit from prehabilitation, which is part of the enhanced recovery after surgery (ERAS) programs. Faster functional recovery is expected in low-risk patients, whereas better clinical outcome and shorter hospital stay have been demonstrated in higher risk and physically unfit patients.

Trauma-induced innate immune activation and disseminated intravascular coagulation

Dysregulated innate immunity participates in the pathomechanisms of disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) in trauma-induced coagulopathy. Accidental and regulated cell deaths and neutrophil extracellular traps release damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), such as histones, nuclear and mitochondrial DNA, and high-mobility group box 1, into circulation immediately after trauma. DAMP-induced inflammation activation releases tissue factor-bearing procoagulant extracellular vesicles through gasdermin D-mediated pore formation and plasma membrane rupture by regulated cell death. DAMPs also evoke systemic inflammation, platelet, coagulation activation, and impaired fibrinolysis associated with endothelial injury, leading to the dysfunction of anticoagulation systems, which are the main pathophysiological mechanisms of DIC. All these processes induce systemic thrombin generation in vivo, not restricted to the injury sites immediately after trauma. Thrombin generation at the site of injury stops bleeding and maintains homeostasis. However, DIC associated with endothelial injury generates massive thrombin, enhancing protease-activated, receptor-mediated bidirectional interplays between inflammation and coagulation, aggravating the diverse actions of thrombin and disturbing homeostasis. Insufficiently regulated thrombin causes disseminated microvascular thrombosis, resulting in tissue hypoxia due to reduced oxygen delivery, and mitochondrial dysfunction due to DAMPs causes tissue dysoxia. In addition, DAMP-induced calcium influx and overload, as well as neutrophil activation, play a role in endothelial cell injury. Tissue hypoxia and cytotoxicity result in multiple organ dysfunction in DIC after trauma. Controls against dysregulated innate immunity evoking systemic inflammation, thrombin generation, and cytotoxicity are key issues in improving the prognosis of DIC in trauma-induced coagulopathy.

PAMPs and DAMPs in Sepsis: A Review of Their Molecular Features and Potential Clinical Implications

Sepsis is a serious organ dysfunction caused by a dysregulated immune host reaction to a pathogen. The innate immunity is programmed to react immediately to conserved molecules, released by the pathogens (PAMPs), and the host (DAMPs). We aimed to review the molecular mechanisms of the early phases of sepsis, focusing on PAMPs, DAMPs, and their related pathways, to identify potential biomarkers. We included studies published in English and searched on PubMed® and Cochrane®. After a detailed discussion on the actual knowledge of PAMPs/DAMPs, we analyzed their role in the different organs affected by sepsis, trying to elucidate the molecular basis of some of the most-used prognostic scores for sepsis. Furthermore, we described a chronological trend for the release of PAMPs/DAMPs that may be useful to identify different subsets of septic patients, who may benefit from targeted therapies. These findings are preliminary since these pathways seem to be strongly influenced by the peculiar characteristics of different pathogens and host features. Due to these reasons, while initial findings are promising, additional studies are necessary to clarify the potential involvement of these molecular patterns in the natural evolution of sepsis and to facilitate their transition into the clinical setting.

Free Radicals, Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Sepsis-induced Organ Dysfunction: A Mechanistic Insight

Sepsis is a complex clinical condition and a leading cause of death worldwide. During Sepsis, there is a derailment in the host response to infection, which can progress to severe sepsis and multiple organ dysfunction or failure, which leads to death. Free radicals, including reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated predominantly in mitochondria, are one of the key players in impairing normal organ function in sepsis. ROS contributing to oxidative stress has been reported to be the main culprit in the injury of the lung, heart, liver, kidney, gastrointestinal, and other organs. Here in the present review, we describe the generation, and essential properties of various types of ROS, their effect on macromolecules, and their role in mitochondrial dysfunction. Furthermore, the mechanism involved in the ROS-mediated pathogenesis of sepsis-induced organ dysfunction has also been discussed.

Mitochondrial Cation Signalling in the Control of Inflammatory Processes

Mitochondria are the bioenergetic organelles responsible for the maintenance of cellular homeostasis and have also been found to be associated with inflammation. They are necessary to induce and maintain innate and adaptive immune cell responses, acting as signalling platforms and mediators in effector responses. These organelles are also known to play a pivotal role in cation homeostasis as well, which regulates the inflammatory responses through the modulation of these cation channels. In particular, this review focuses on mitochondrial Ca2+ and K+ fluxes in the regulation of inflammatory response. Nevertheless, this review aims to understand the interplay of these inflammation inducers and pathophysiological conditions. In detail, we discuss some examples of chronic inflammation such as lung, bowel, and metabolic inflammatory diseases caused by a persistent activation of the innate immune response due to a dysregulation of mitochondrial cation homeostasis.

The role of mtDAMPs in the trauma-induced systemic inflammatory response syndrome

Systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) is a non-specific exaggerated defense response caused by infectious or non-infectious stressors such as trauma, burn, surgery, ischemia and reperfusion, and malignancy, which can eventually lead to an uncontrolled inflammatory response. In addition to the early mortality due to the "first hits" after trauma, the trauma-induced SIRS and multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS) are the main reasons for the poor prognosis of trauma patients as "second hits". Unlike infection-induced SIRS caused by pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), trauma-induced SIRS is mainly mediated by damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) including mitochondrial DAMPs (mtDAMPs). MtDAMPs released after trauma-induced mitochondrial injury, including mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and mitochondrial formyl peptides (mtFPs), can activate inflammatory response through multiple inflammatory signaling pathways. This review summarizes the role and mechanism of mtDAMPs in the occurrence and development of trauma-induced SIRS.

Low-Dose Non-Targeted Effects and Mitochondrial Control

Non-targeted effects (NTE) have been generally regarded as a low-dose ionizing radiation (IR) phenomenon. Recently, regarding long distant abscopal effects have also been observed at high doses of IR) relevant to antitumor radiation therapy. IR is inducing NTE involving intracellular and extracellular signaling, which may lead to short-ranging bystander effects and distant long-ranging extracellular signaling abscopal effects. Internal and "spontaneous" cellular stress is mostly due to metabolic oxidative stress involving mitochondrial energy production (ATP) through oxidative phosphorylation and/or anaerobic pathways accompanied by the leakage of O₂^- and other radicals from mitochondria during normal or increased cellular energy requirements or to mitochondrial dysfunction. Among external stressors, ionizing radiation (IR) has been shown to very rapidly perturb mitochondrial functions, leading to increased energy supply demands and to ROS/NOS production. Depending on the dose, this affects all types of cell constituents, including DNA, RNA, amino acids, proteins, and membranes, perturbing normal inner cell organization and function, and forcing cells to reorganize the intracellular metabolism and the network of organelles. The reorganization implies intracellular cytoplasmic-nuclear shuttling of important proteins, activation of autophagy, and mitophagy, as well as induction of cell cycle arrest, DNA repair, apoptosis, and senescence. It also includes reprogramming of mitochondrial metabolism as well as genetic and epigenetic control of the expression of genes and proteins in order to ensure cell and tissue survival. At low doses of IR, directly irradiated cells may already exert non-targeted effects (NTE) involving the release of molecular mediators, such as radicals, cytokines, DNA fragments, small RNAs, and proteins (sometimes in the form of extracellular vehicles or exosomes), which can induce damage of unirradiated neighboring bystander or distant (abscopal) cells as well as immune responses. Such non-targeted effects (NTE) are contributing to low-dose phenomena, such as hormesis, adaptive responses, low-dose hypersensitivity, and genomic instability, and they are also promoting suppression and/or activation of immune cells. All of these are parts of the main defense systems of cells and tissues, including IR-induced innate and adaptive immune responses. The present review is focused on the prominent role of mitochondria in these processes, which are determinants of cell survival and anti-tumor RT.

Mitochondrial bioenergetic changes in systemic lupus erythematosus immune cell subsets: Contributions to pathogenesis and clinical applications

The association of dysregulated metabolism in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) pathogenesis has prompted investigations into metabolic rewiring and the involvement of mitochondrial metabolism as a driver of disease through NLRP3 inflammasome activation, disruption of mitochondrial DNA maintenance, and pro-inflammatory cytokine release. The use of Agilent Seahorse Technology to gain functional in situ metabolic insights of selected cell types from SLE patients has identified key parameters that are dysregulated during disease. Mitochondrial functional assessments specifically can detect dysfunction through oxygen consumption rate (OCR), spare respiratory capacity, and maximal respiration measurements, which, when coupled with disease activity scores could show potential as markers of disease activity. CD4+ and CD8 + T cells have been assessed in this way and show that oxygen consumption rate, spare respiratory capacity, and maximal respiration are blunted in CD8 + T cells, with results not being as clear cut in CD4 + T cells. Additionally, glutamine, processed by mitochondrial substrate level phosphorylation is emerging as a key role player in the expansion and differentiation of Th1, Th17, ϒδ T cells, and plasmablasts. The role that circulating leukocytes play in acting as bioenergetic biomarkers of diseases such as diabetes suggests that this may also be a tool to detect preclinical SLE. Therefore, the metabolic characterization of immune cell subsets and the collection of metabolic data during interventions is also essential. The delineation of the metabolic tuning of immune cells in this way could lead to novel strategies in treating metabolically demanding processes characteristic of autoimmune diseases such as SLE.

Dimethyl fumarate inhibits necroptosis and alleviates systemic inflammatory response syndrome by blocking the RIPK1-RIPK3-MLKL axis

Necroptosis has been implicated in various inflammatory diseases including tumor-necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)-induced systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS). Dimethyl fumarate (DMF), a first-line drug for treating relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS), has been shown to be effective against various inflammatory diseases. However, it is still unclear whether DMF can inhibit necroptosis and confer protection against SIRS. In this study, we found that DMF significantly inhibited necroptotic cell death in macrophages induced by different necroptotic stimulations. Both the autophosphorylation of receptor-interacting serine/threonine kinase 1 (RIPK1) and RIPK3 and the downstream phosphorylation and oligomerization of MLKL were robustly suppressed by DMF. Accompanying the suppression of necroptotic signaling, DMF blocked the mitochondrial reverse electron transport (RET) induced by necroptotic stimulation, which was associated with its electrophilic property. Several well-known anti-RET reagents also markedly inhibited the activation of the RIPK1-RIPK3-MLKL axis accompanied by decreased necrotic cell death, indicating a critical role of RET in necroptotic signaling. DMF and other anti-RET reagents suppressed the ubiquitination of RIPK1 and RIPK3, and they attenuated the formation of necrosome. Moreover, oral administration of DMF significantly alleviated the severity of TNF-α-induced SIRS in mice. Consistent with this, DMF mitigated TNF-α-induced cecal, uterine, and lung damage accompanied by diminished RIPK3-MLKL signaling. Collectively, DMF represents a new necroptosis inhibitor that suppresses the RIPK1-RIPK3-MLKL axis through blocking mitochondrial RET. Our study highlights DMF's potential therapeutic applications for treating SIRS-associated diseases.

Mitochondrial transplantation protects against sepsis-induced myocardial dysfunction by modulating mitochondrial biogenesis and fission/fusion and inflammatory response

BACKGROUND

Sepsis-induced myocardial dysfunction is associated with worse clinical outcomes and high mortality, but no effective therapeutic intervention has been explored, reinforcing the urgent need to develop innovative strategies. Mitochondrial dysfunction underlies the pathogenesis of sepsis-induced myocardial dysfunction. Herein, we assessed the effect of mitochondrial transplantation on sepsis-induced myocardial dysfunction in a rat model of cecal ligation and puncture (CLP)-induced sepsis.

METHODS

Male Wistar rats (n = 80, 12 weeks old, 250-300 g) were divided into groups with/without CLP-induced sepsis receiving mitochondrial transplantation in single or two repetitive injections (1 h or 1 and 7 h post-CLP, respectively). Mitochondria were isolated from donor rats and injected intravenously (400 µl of mitochondrial suspension containing 7.5 × 10⁶ mitochondria/ml of respiration buffer) in recipient groups. Twenty-four hours post-operation, LDH and cTn-I levels, mitochondrial functional endpoints, expression of mitochondrial biogenesis (SIRT-1 and PGC-1α) and fission/fusion (Drp1/Mfn1 and Mfn2) genes, and inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) levels were evaluated. Survival was tested over 72 h post-operation.

RESULTS

Mitotherapy significantly improved 72-hours survival (P < .05) and decreased LDH and cTn-I levels (P < .01). It also restored mitochondrial function and expression of mitochondrial biogenesis and fusion genes, and decreased the expression of mitochondrial fission gene and the levels of inflammatory cytokines (P < .05 to P < .01). Mitotherapy with repetitive injections at 1 and 7 h post-CLP provided noticeable mitoprotection in comparison with the group receiving mitotherapy at single injection.

CONCLUSION

Mitotherapy improved mitochondrial function, biogenesis, and dynamic associated with SIRT-1/PGC-1α network and suppressed inflammatory response in CLP-induced sepsis model, therefore, offers a promising strategy to overcome life-threatening sepsis challenge.

Circulating mtDNA and Impaired Intestinal Barrier after Gastrointestinal Surgery Are Correlated with Postoperative SIRS

Background: This prospective study aimed to explore the correlation between circulating mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), intestinal barrier function impairment, and postoperative SIRS in patients undergoing gastrointestinal surgery. Methods: Patients were recruited into this study after signing an informed consent form. Circulating mitochondrial DNA and serum DAO concentrations were measured preoperatively and on day 1 and day 7 postoperatively. Postoperative vitals, routine tests, and biochemical indicators were recorded in detail. Results: Forty patients undergoing gastrointestinal surgery were recruited for and completed this study. Patients were divided into non-fever, fever, and SIRS groups according to their postoperative temperature and other corresponding indexes. The mtDNA was expressed as the number of PCR cycles using three specific sequences. Circulating mtDNA tended to increase in patients after gastrointestinal surgery, but the difference was not significant. Nevertheless, mtDNA in the SIRS group was significantly higher than in patients in the fever and non-fever groups (p < 0.05). Serum DAO showed a trend of increase on the first day after surgery compared with that before surgery, but the difference was not significant (p > 0.05). However, patients in the SIRS group showed a significant increase (p < 0.05) compared with the others. Both circulating mtDNA and DAO showed a downward trend on the seventh day after surgery. Conclusions: Circulating mtDNA presented a trend of increase after gastrointestinal surgery, and the degree of the increased fold was related to the extent of the inflammation response. In general, the intestinal barrier damage indicator DAO was the same as mtDNA and tended to increase after gastrointestinal surgery and then gradually decrease, which may play a synergistic role in inducing postoperative fever and SIRS.

Venous stroke–a stroke subtype that should not be ignored

Based on the etiology, stroke can be classified into ischemic or hemorrhagic subtypes, which ranks second among the leading causes of death. Stroke is caused not only by arterial thrombosis but also by cerebral venous thrombosis. Arterial stroke is currently the main subtype of stroke, and research on this type has gradually improved. Venous thrombosis, the particular type, accounts for 0.5–1% of all strokes. Due to the lack of a full understanding of venous thrombosis, as well as its diverse clinical manifestations and neuroimaging features, there are often delays in admission for it, and it is easy to misdiagnose. The purpose of this study was to review the pathophysiology mechanisms and clinical features of arterial and venous thrombosis and to provide guidance for further research on the pathophysiological mechanism, clinical diagnosis, and treatment of venous thrombosis. This review summarizes the pathophysiological mechanisms, etiology, epidemiology, symptomatology, diagnosis, and treatment heterogeneity of venous thrombosis and compares it with arterial stroke. The aim is to provide a reference for a comprehensive understanding of venous thrombosis and a scientific understanding of various pathophysiological mechanisms and clinical features related to venous thrombosis, which will contribute to understanding the pathogenesis of intravenous stroke and provide insight into diagnosis, treatment, and prevention.