Pachymic acid inhibits growth and induces cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in gastric cancer SGC-7901 cells

Mechanism of pachymic acid in the treatment of gastric cancer based on network pharmacology and experimental verification

BACKGROUND

Pachymic acid (PA) is derived from Poria cocos. PA has a variety of pharmacological and inhibitory effects on various tumors. However, the mechanism of action of PA in gastric cancer (GC) remains unclear.

AIM

To investigate the mechanism of PA in treating GC via the combination of network pharmacology and experimental verification.

METHODS

The GeneCards and OMIM databases were used to derive the GC targets, while the Pharm Mapper database provided the PA targets. Utilizing the STRING database, a protein-protein interaction network was constructed and core targets were screened. The analyses of Gene Ontology, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG), and gene set enrichment analysis were conducted, and molecular docking and clinical correlation analyses were performed on the core targets. Ultimately, the network pharmacology findings were validated through in vitro cell assays, encompassing assessments of cell viability, apoptosis, cell cycle, cloning, and western blot analysis.

RESULTS

According to network pharmacology analysis, the core targets were screened, and the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway is likely to be the mechanism by which PA effectively treats GC, according to KEGG enrichment analysis. The experimental findings showed that PA could control PI3K/AKT signaling to prevent GC cell proliferation, induce apoptosis, and pause the cell cycle.

CONCLUSION

Network pharmacology demonstrated that PA could treat GC by controlling a variety of signaling pathways and acting on a variety of targets. This has also been supported by in vitro cell studies, which serve as benchmarks for further research.

Synthesis and bioactivity evaluation of pachymic acid derivatives as potential cytotoxic agents

Pachymic acid, a well-known natural lanostane-type triterpenoid, exhibits various pharmacological properties. In this study, 18 derivatives of pachymic acid were synthesized by modifying their molecular structures and evaluated for their anticancer activity against two human cancer cell lines using the CCK-8 assay. Structure-activity relationship studies according to the in vitro cytotoxicity unexpectedly found one promising derivative A17 (namely tumulosic acid, also found in Poria cocos), which had stronger anti-proliferative activity than the positive drug cisplatin against HepG2 and HSC-2 cell lines with IC₅₀ values of 7.36 ± 0.98 and 2.50 ± 0.15 μM, respectively. Further pharmacological analysis demonstrated that A17 induced HSC-2 cell cycle arrest at the S phase, cell apoptosis, and autophagy. Western blotting confirmed the regulatory effects of A17 on cell cycle arrest-, apoptosis-, and autophagy-related proteins expression. In addition, A17 regulated the AKT and AMPK pathways in HSC-2 cells. These results demonstrated that A17 possesses great potential as an anticancer agent.

Graphical Abstract

Pachymic Acid Inhibits Growth and Metastatic Potential in Liver Cancer HepG2 and Huh7 Cells

Pachymic acid (PA), exacted from Polyporaceae, has been known for its biological activities including diuretic, dormitive, anti-oxidant, anti-aging, anti-inflammatory and anticancer properties in several types of diseases. Recently, studies have demonstrated that PA could suppress cell growth and induce cell apoptosis in different kinds of cancer cells. But the underlying mechanisms remain poorly elucidated. In the current study, we investigated the effect of pachymic acid on liver cancer cells and its underlying mechanisms. Our results evidenced that pachymic acid effectively inhibited the cell growth and metastatic potential in HepG2 and Huh7 cells. Mechanistically, we revealed that pachymic acid triggered cell apoptosis by increasing caspase 3 and caspase 9 cleavage, upregulating Bax and cytochrome c expression, while reducing the expression of Bcl2. Besides, pachymic acid could markedly inhibit the cell invasion and migration and cell metastatic potential by mediating epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers and metastasis-associated genes in HepG2 and Huh7 cells. In addition, we demonstrated that FAK-Src-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK)-matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP2) axis was involved in PA-inhibited liver cell EMT. Together, these results contribute to our deeper understanding of the anti-cancer effects of pachymic acid on liver cancer cells. This study also provided compelling evidence that PA might be a potential therapeutic agent for liver cancer treatment.

Pharmacological profiles and therapeutic applications of pachymic acid (Review)

Poria cocos is a saprophytic fungus that grows in diverse species of Pinus. Its sclerotium, called fu-ling or hoelen, has been used in various traditional Chinese medicines and health foods for thousands of years, and in several modern proprietary traditional Chinese medicinal products. It has extensive clinical indications, including sedative, diuretic, and tonic effects. Pachymic acid (PA) is the main lanostane-type triterpenoid in Poria cocos. Evidence suggests that PA has various biological properties such as cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, antihyperglycemic, antiviral, antibacterial, sedative-hypnotic, and anti-ischemia/reperfusion activities. Although considerable advancements have been made, some fundamental and intricate issues remain unclear, such as the underlying mechanisms of PA. The present study aimed to summarize the biological properties and therapeutic potential of PA. The biosynthetic, pharmacokinetic, and metabolic pathways of PA, and its underlying mechanisms were also comprehensively summarized.

Target Nuclear Factor Erythroid 2-Related Factor 2 in Pulmonary Hypertension: Molecular Insight into Application

Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) is a key transcription factor involved in maintaining redox balance and activates the expression of downstream antioxidant enzymes. Nrf2 has received wide attention considering its crucial role in oxidative and electrophilic stress. Large amounts of studies have demonstrated the protective role of Nrf2 activation in various pulmonary hypertension (pH) models. Additionally, various kinds of natural phytochemicals acting as Nrf2 activators prevent the development of pH and provide a novel and promising therapeutic insight for the treatment of pH. In the current review, we give a brief introduction of Nrf2 and focus on the role and mechanism of Nrf2 in the pathophysiology of pH and then review the relevant research of Nrf2 agonists in pH in both experimental research and clinical trials.

Efficacy and Pharmacological Mechanism of Poria cocos-Based Formulas Combined With Chemotherapy for Ovarian Cancer: A Integrated Systems Pharmacology Study

Previous studies have shown that Poria cocos-based formulas combined with chemotherapy can improve the quality of life of ovarian cancer patients. However, the results are still controversial. We systematically searched the literature from eight databases to evaluate the efficacy and safety of Poria cocos-based formulas in combination with paclitaxel-carboplatin in treating ovarian cancer (OC). Subsequently, network pharmacology, molecular docking and cell experiments were performed to further verify the underlying molecular mechanism. Thirteen randomized controlled trials, including 922 patients with OC, were enrolled in the study. The results indicated that Poria cocos-based compounds combined with paclitaxel-carboplatin significantly improved patients' tumor response rate, traditional Chinese medicine syndrome score, Karnofsky Performance Scale, physical and social function, and reduced side effects of chemotherapy compared to the paclitaxel-carboplatin alone. According to the network pharmacological analysis, tumulosic acid were the most bioactive compounds of Poria cocos. BCL2L1 is highly expressed in OC and is associated with a worse prognosis which could become potential drug target. Functional enrichment analysis suggested that the anti-OC effect of Poria cocos may be related to PI3K-Akt signaling pathway. The molecular docking results indicated that tumulosic acid might inhibit OC by regulating BCL2L1. Vitro experiment confirmed tumulosic acid that induced cell apoptosis by modulating PI3K/AKT signaling and BCL2L1. Our study may provide a clinical basis and theoretical rationale for combining Poria cocos-based formulas with chemotherapy for OC. In addition, the integrated pharmacological strategy proposed in our study provides an excellent example for exploring the mechanism of complex formulas.

Pachymic Acid Ameliorates Pulmonary Hypertension by Regulating Nrf2-Keap1-ARE Pathway

OBJECTIVE

Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a severe pulmonary vascular disease that eventually leads to right ventricular failure and death. The purpose of this study was to investigate the mechanism by which pachymic acid (PA) pretreatment affects PH and pulmonary vascular remodeling in rats.

METHODS

PH was induced via hypoxia exposure and administration of PA (5 mg/kg per day) in male Sprague-Dawley rats. Hemodynamic parameters were measured using a right ventricular floating catheter and pulmonary vascular morphometry was measured by hematoxylin-eosin (HE), α-SMA and Masson staining. MTT assays and EdU staining were used to detect cell proliferation, and apoptosis was analyzed by TUNEL staining. Western blotting and immunohistochemistry were used to detect the expression of proteins related to the Nrf2-Keap1-ARE pathway.

RESULTS

PA significantly alleviated hypoxic PH and reversed right ventricular hypertrophy and pulmonary vascular remodeling. In addition, PA effectively inhibited proliferation and promoted apoptosis in hypoxia-induced pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs). Moreover, PA pretreatment inhibited the expression of peroxy-related factor (MDA) and promoted the expression of antioxidant-related factors (GSH-PX and SOD). Furthermore, hypoxia inhibited the Nrf2-Keap1-ARE signaling pathway, while PA effectively activated this pathway. Most importantly, addition of the Nrf2 inhibitor ML385 reversed the inhibitory effects of PA on ROS generation, proliferation, and apoptosis tolerance in hypoxia-induced PASMCs.

CONCLUSION

Our study suggests that PA may reverse PH by regulating the Nrf2-Keap1-ARE signaling pathway.

Role of reactive oxygen species in tumors based on the 'seed and soil' theory: A complex interaction (Review)

Tumor microenvironment (TME) can serve as the 'soil' for the growth and survival of tumor cells and function synergically with tumor cells to mediate tumor progression and therapeutic resistance. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) is somewhat of a double‑edged sword for tumors. Accumulating evidence has reported that regulating ROS levels can serve an anti‑tumor role in the TME, including the promotion of cancer cell apoptosis, inhibition of angiogenesis, preventing immune escape, manipulating tumor metabolic reorganization and improving drug resistance. In the present review, the potential role of ROS in anti‑tumor therapy was summarized, including the possibility of directly or indirectly targeting the TME.

Identification of an Oxidosqualene Cyclase Gene Involved in Steroidal Triterpenoid Biosynthesis in Cordyceps farinosa

Various fungi including Cordyceps farinosa, an entomopathogenic fungus, can produce steroidal triterpenoids. Protostadienol (protosta-17(20)Z,24-dien-3β-ol) is a precursor of steroidal triterpenoid compounds. To identify oxidosqualene cyclase (OSC) gene candidates involved in triterpenoid biosynthesis, genome mining was performed using Illumina sequencing platform. In the sequence database, two OSC genes, CfaOSC1 and CfaOSC2, in the genome of C. farinosa were identified. Predicted amino-acid sequences of CfaOSC2 shared 66% similarities with protostadienol synthase (OSPC) of Aspergillus fumigatus. Phylogenetic analysis showed a clear grouping of CfaOSC2 in the OSPC clade. Function of CfaOSC2 was examined using a yeast INVSc1 heterologous expression system to endogenously synthesize 2,3-oxidosqualene. GC-MS analysis indicated that CfaOSC2 produced protosta-13(17),24-dien-3β-ol and protostadienol at a 5:95 ratio. Our results demonstrate that CfaOSC2 is a multifunctional triterpene synthase yielding a predominant protostadienol together with a minor triterpenoid. These results will facilitate a greater understanding of biosynthetic mechanisms underlying steroidal triterpenoid biosynthesis in C. farinosa and other fungi.

Phytochemistry and Biological Activities of Poria

Poria is a common Traditional Chinese Medicine in clinic. In recent years, the chemical and pharmacological studies of Poria have made great progress, triterpenes and polysaccharides have been isolated, and various types of compounds containing lipids, octanoic acids, fatty acids, and trace elements have been found. In this paper, we reviewed the literature, summarized the main compound types, and reviewed in detail their pharmacological effects in antitumor, immunomodulatory, effects on kidney, hepatoprotective activity, effects on blood sugar, antioxidant effects, anti-inflammatory effects, effects on the gut, antidepressant, and so on, and also categorized the compounds with the same or similar pharmacological effects to provide a reference for the in-depth study of the material basis of the pharmacological effect, quality standards, and pharmacological activity of Poria.

Mechanisms of Core Chinese Herbs against Colorectal Cancer: A Study Based on Data Mining and Network Pharmacology

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is now the second most deadly cancer globally. Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) plays an indispensable role in CRC treatment in China. However, the core herbs (the CHs) in the treatment of CRC and their underlying therapeutic mechanisms remain unclear. This study aims to uncovering the CHs and their mechanisms of action of CRC treatment, applying data mining and network pharmacology approach. First, CHM prescriptions treating CRC were collected from clinical studies from the Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) and MEDLINE databases, and the CHs were identified through data mining. Then, the bioactive compounds and the corresponding putative targets of the CHs were obtained from three traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) databases. CRC related targets were acquired from three disease databases; the overlapping targets between the CHs and CRC were identified as the therapeutic targets. Subsequently, functional enrichment analysis was performed to elucidate the mechanisms of the CHs on CRC. Moreover, networks were constructed to screen the major bioactive compounds and therapeutic targets. Finally, prognostic values of the major target genes were evaluated by survival analysis, and molecular docking simulation was performed to assess the binding affinity of key targets and major bioactive compounds. It came out that 10 the CHs from 113 prescriptions and 190 bioactive compounds with 118 therapeutic targets were identified. The therapeutic targets were mainly enriched in the biological progress of transcription, apoptosis, and response to cytokine. Various cancer-associated signaling pathways, including microRNAs, TNF, apoptosis, PI3K-Akt, and p53, were involved. Furthermore, 15 major bioactive compounds and five key target genes (VEGFA, CASP3, MYC, CYP1Y1, and NFKB1) with prognostic significance were identified. Additionally, most major bioactive compounds might bind firmly to the key target proteins. This study provided an overview of the anti-CRC mechanisms of the CHs, which might refer to the regulation of apoptosis, transcription, and inflammation.

Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Activities of Wolfiporia cocos (F.A. Wolf) Ryvarden & Gilb

Poria cocos is the dried sclerotium of Wolfiporia cocos (F.A. Wolf) Ryvarden & Gilb., which was the current accepted name and was formerly known as Macrohyporia cocos (Schwein.) I. Johans. & Ryvarden, Pachyma cocos (Schwein.) Fr., Poria cocos F.A. Wolf and Sclerotium cocos Schwein. It is one of the most important crude drugs in traditional Chinese medicine, with a wide range of applications in ameliorating phlegm and edema, relieving nephrosis and chronic gastritis and improving uneasiness of minds. Its extensive pharmacological effects have attracted considerable attention in recent years. However, there is no systematic review focusing on the chemical compounds and pharmacological activities of Poria cocos. Therefore, this review aimed to provide the latest information on the chemical compounds and pharmacological effects of Poria cocos, exploring the therapeutic potential of these compounds. We obtained the information of Poria cocos from electronic databases such as SCI finder, PubMed, Web of Science, CNKI, WanFang DATA and Google Scholar. Up to now, two main active ingredients, triterpenes and polysaccharides of Poria cocos, have been identified from Poria cocos. It has been reported that they have pharmacological effects on anti-tumor, anti-bacterial, anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulation, and liver and kidney protection. The review summarizes the phytochemistry and pharmacological properties of Poria cocos, which suggest that researchers should focus on the development of new drugs about Poria cocos to make them exert greater therapeutic potential.

Serum starvation induces cell death in NSCLC via miR-224

Purpose: Increasing evidence suggests that microRNAs (miRNAs) may be involved in the occurrence and progression of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). In the present study, we used serum-starved A549 cells emulating tumor under a nutrient depletion stress in the microenvironment.

Patients and methods: We first detected the expression level of miR-224 between tumor tissues and the adjacent normal tissues. We analyzed the expression levels of miR-224 and its predicted target phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) using quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) in starved A549 cells. Following transfection with miR-224 mimic or inhibitor in starved A549 cells, MTT assay, Annexin V FITC/PI staining, and LC-3 immunofluorence staining were performed to investigate the roles of miR-224 on proliferation, apoptosis, and autophagy. Next, the expression of apoptosis-related protein Bax and Bcl-2, autophagy-related proteins LC3, PI3K signaling, and target PTEN were measured using qRT-PCR and Western blot assays. The direct interaction between miR-224 and PTEN was validated with a dual luciferase assay.

Results: We found that the expression level of miR-224 in tumor tissues was significantly higher when compared with the adjacent normal tissues. We discovered a reciprocal expression pattern between miR-224 and PTEN in starved A549 cells, and transfection with miR-224 mimic led to down-regulation of PTEN. A dual luciferase assay further confirmed the direct interaction between miR-224 and 3ʹUTR of PTEN. Transfection with miR-224 mimic in starved A549 cells resulted in enhanced cell proliferation, reduced apoptosis, and autophagy, accompanied by increased expression of anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2, decreased expression of pro-apoptotic protein Bax, and autophagy-related protein LC3. Activation of PI3K was observed in miR-224 mimic transfected cells. The reverse effects by the miR-224 inhibitor in all experiments were observed.

Conclusion: Taken together, we proved that miR-224 might play essential roles in cellular functions of nutrient-depleted A549 cells possibly through regulating the target PTEN and downstream signal PI3K, suggesting the potential of miR-224 to be a therapeutic target for NSCLC therapy.

Multifunctional Actions of Ninjinyoeito, a Japanese Kampo Medicine: Accumulated Scientific Evidence Based on Experiments With Cells and Animal Models, and Clinical Studies

Herbal medicines are currently employed for the treatment of several types of diseases, and also employed for the improvement of Quality of Life (QOL) of patients over the world, in particular, in Asian countries. In Japan, a Japanese herbal medicine namely kampo medicine has been prescribed for the improvement of QOL of patients. Ninjinyoeito (NYT), composed of 12 herbal plants, is one of kampo medicines and used for helping recovery of diseases and improving several symptoms that suffer patients such as anemia, anorexia and fatigue. Recent scientific research approaches to kampo medicines with cells and animal models enable to prove that NYT has multiple functions for improvement of symptoms. Also, clinical studies using NYT support such actions to be widely used for the improvement of symptoms that reduce the QOL of patients.