The Physiological Requirements of and Nutritional Recommendations for Equestrian Riders

Equestrian sport is under-researched within the sport science literature, creating a possible knowledge vacuum for athletes and support personnel wishing to train and perform in an evidence-based manner. This review aims to synthesise available evidence from equitation, sport, and veterinary sciences to describe the pertinent rider physiology of equestrian disciplines. Estimates of energy expenditure and the contribution of underpinning energy systems to equestrian performance are used to provide nutrition and hydration recommendations for competition and training in equestrian disciplines. Relative energy deficiency and disordered eating are also considered. The practical challenges of the equestrian environment, including competitive, personal, and professional factors, injury and concussion, and female participation, are discussed to better highlight novelty within equestrian disciplines compared to more commonly studied sports. The evidence and recommendations are supported by example scenarios, and future research directions are outlined.

Trunk Kinematics of Experienced Riders and Novice Riders During Rising Trot on a Riding Simulator

Asymmetry of horses and humans is widely acknowledged, but the influence of one upon the other during horse riding is poorly understood. Riding simulators are popular for education of beginners and analysis of rider biomechanics. This study compares trunk kinematics and saddle forces of 10 experienced riders (ER) and 10 novice riders (NR) performing rising trot on a simulator. Markers were placed on the 4th lumbar (L4) and 7th cervical (C7) spinous processes, and both acromion processes. Displacements in three axes of motion were tracked using 10 high-speed video cameras sampling at 240 Hz. Displacement trajectories at L4 and C7 were similar between both groups, displaying an asymmetrical butterfly pattern in the frontal plane, which reversed when changing diagonal. Comparison between groups, NR displayed greater vertical displacement and higher saddle impact forces at L4 (P = .034), greater amplitude of medio-lateral displacement on the right diagonal between C7 and L4, and on the right diagonal while seated they rotated left (acromion processes) while the ER rotated right. Within group comparison demonstrated that on the right diagonal both groups produced significantly greater medio-lateral displacement at L4, and NR displayed significantly greater medio-lateral displacement between C7 and L4. On the left diagonal NR produced significantly greater vertical displacement and higher saddle impact forces. The findings of this study suggest that ER were more stable, symmetrical, and had lower impact force on the saddle. These issues could be addressed in beginners using a simulator to avoid unnecessary stresses on horses.

Rider Variables Affecting the Stirrup Directional Force Asymmetry during Simulated Riding Trot

Riders’ asymmetry may cause back pain in both human and equine athletes. This pilot study aimed at documenting in a simple and quick way asymmetry in riders during a simulation of three different riding positions on wooden horseback using load cells applied on the stirrup leathers and identifying possible associations between riders’ asymmetry and their gender, age, level of riding ability, years of riding experience, riding style, motivation of riding, primary discipline and handedness. After completing an interview to obtain the previously mentioned information, 147 riders performed a standardized test on a saddle fixed on a wooden horseback-shaped model. The riding simulation was split into three phases of 1 min each: (1) sit in the saddle, (2) standing in the stirrups and (3) rising trot. The directional force on the left and the right stirrup leathers was recorded every 0.2 s. A paired t-test was performed on the recorded data to test the difference (i.e., asymmetry) in each phase. In phases 1, 2 and 3, 99.3% (53.4% heavier on the right (R)), 98% (52.8% heavier on the left (L)) and 46.3% (51.5% heavier on the left (L)) of the riders were asymmetrical, respectively. Chi-square tests showed a significant association between riding ability and riding experience, but no significant association between reported handedness and calculated leg-sidedness (p > 0.05). Univariate logistic (1: asymmetry, 0: symmetry) regression analysis was performed only on the phase 3 data. One-hand riders were found twice more likely to be asymmetrical than two-hand riders (Odds Ratio (OR): 2.18, Confidence Interval (CI): 1.1−4.29; p = 0.024). This preliminary study confirmed that the majority of the riders are asymmetrical in load distribution on stirrups and suggested the riding style as a possible risk factor for asymmetry.

Technological Optimization of the Stirrup Casting Process with the Use of Computer Simulations

The article presents the optimization of high-pressure die casting process technology for equestrian stirrups with the application of computer simulation. In the initial stage, the output technology was analyzed, and on the basis of a series of virtual experiments the cause of defects in the casting was highlighted. The optimization process includes different designs of a gating system. Additionally, the casting application properties were evaluated in an exploitation simulation, taking into account predicted defects resulting from the casting and solidification process. Based on the conducted analyses, technological changes were made to the casting technology design allowing the defects occurring in the original technological concept to be removed.

Static postural differences between male and female equestrian riders on a riding simulator

This study aimed to compare static posture of male and female riders on a riding simulator. Ten female and five male riders underwent a 5 min standardised exercise programme on the simulator, they were then videoed for 10 s from each the left, right, and rear views whilst stationary on the simulator. Two-dimensional kinematic analysis of the videos showed that male riders had a more neutrally positioned pelvis in the sagittal plane (median left: 6.47°, right: 5.24°) with females demonstrating a posterior pelvic tilt (L: 14.04°, R: 13.55°). Females showed significantly greater pelvic obliquity (median female: 1.99°, male: 0.73°), trunk lean (F: 1.60°, M: 0.43°), and shoulder tilt (F: 1.79°, M: 0.57°) in the frontal plane, demonstrating an overall greater postural asymmetry. Previous studies of elite riders have shown a more anteriorly rotated pelvis to be more desirable. Symmetry of riding position is favourable as it allows movements to be performed with ease and ensures even force distribution through the saddle to the horse. Male riders may therefore have a biomechanical advantage over females when it comes to maintaining a desirable riding position. This research should now be extended to study riders on the horse in motion.

Footedness and Postural Asymmetry in Amateur Dressage Riders, Riding in Medium Trot on a Dressage Simulator

This study explored the relationship between footedness and postural asymmetry in equestrian riders. 28 female riders completed the Waterloo Footedness Questionnaire- Revised (WFQ-R), giving a score for footedness. They then took part in a test on a riding simulator where measures of saddle force, stirrup force, and degree of lateral tilt of the pelvic, trunk, and shoulder segments were taken over a period of 20 seconds in trot. Symmetry indices were calculated for stirrup force and saddle force. There were no significant correlations between WFQ-R score and any of the measures of postural symmetry. Only a very small number (n=3) participants showed a marked footedness, with the majority of the sample being classed as 'mixed footed' based on test scores. This, coupled with data loss for some participants in each of the parameters, means direct comparison of footedness groups was difficult. However, the variation of asymmetry in the mixed footed group supports the idea that footedness does not have a significant impact on the rider's posture. There was a correlation between trunk lean and stirrup force symmetry index (r=0.537, P=0.021) showing the trunk leaned towards the side of higher stirrup force. There was a significant negative correlation between pelvic obliquity and shoulder tilt (r= -0.481, P=0.023) with 59% of the sample showing pelvic obliquity and shoulder tilt in opposite directions. The findings indicate that there is little effect of footedness on postural asymmetries in the rider. Research should now consider other causal factors to support riders to become more symmetrical.

Stirrup forces during approach, take-off and landing in horses jumping 70 cm

Stirrups aid the rider to stabilise their lower leg allowing it to be used effectively for communication and in maintaining their position in the saddle. Relatively few studies have investigated stirrup forces and to the best our knowledge no studies have reported stirrup forces in jumping. The aim of the present study was to measure stirrup forces in five showjumping horses ridden by the same professional rider. All horses were in regular training and competition jumping at least 30 cm higher than the fence used for the study. The fence chosen was a 70 cm upright with a pole at the top and a groundline. Right and left stirrup forces were measured using wireless load cells placed between the stirrup leathers and the stirrup. The signals were transmitted and digitised at 100 Hz and synchronised with video from a webcam using an inertial measurement unit. After warming-up, including over jumps, each horse attempted the jump three times from each rein in canter (3 horses left then right rein; 2 horses right then left rein). Mean peak total (sum of left and right) stirrup force for the approach (n=5 strides per horse per jump), take-off and landing phase of the jump was 1,034±110, 1,042±284 and 1,447±256 N (range 905 to 1,815 N), respectively (mean ± standard deviation). There was no significant difference between right or left mean peak stirrup force during approach or take-off, but mean peak force was consistently higher on the right stirrup during the early phase of landing on either the right or left rein (right: 827±320 N; left: 615±336 N; P<0.05). In conclusion, the mean total peak stirrup forces measured in the present study in the same rider jumping five different horses over a 70 cm single upright fence are similar to previous reports of peak stirrup forces in gallop and consistent with observations of asymmetric loading of the saddle and horses’ backs by riders.

The Effect of Stirrup Iron Style on Normal Forces and Rider Position

The stirrup iron has the potential to modify the forces experienced by a horse and rider during ridden exercise. A range of stirrup designs are available, but no previous studies have investigated if these modifications influence riders' position and interaction with the horse. Novel flexible (F) or flexible and rotatable (FR) irons versus traditional (T) stirrups may positively impact the welfare and performance of the horse and rider. Four riders rode using the three stirrup types (T, F, and FR). Hip, knee, and ankle angles and toe position from film, and the normal force exerted bilaterally on force sensors on the stirrups tread were evaluated at the highest (HP) and lowest point (LP) of the posting trot (n = 4) and canter (n = 2). Statistics included Shapiro-Wilk's test, Friedman's test, and Wilcoxon signed rank test (significant at P < .05). No significant difference was seen between joint angles, toe position, or forces between the types of stirrups. At the HP, mean hip, knee, and ankle angles were 169.4° ± 10°, 150.7° ± 9.7°, and 94.5° ± 9.6°, and 139.1° ± 9.6°, 123.9° ± 10.9°, and 92.7° ± 9.5° at the LP. Riders had an 8.74° ± 6.66° difference of right versus left joints. Right toes rotated more laterally (P = .02) regardless of stirrup type. The mean trot and canter forces applied (N)/body weight (N) were 0.72 ± 0.15 (HP), 0.19 ± 0.15 (LP), and 0.18 ± 0.05 (canter). Riders shortened the stirrup leathers with F or FR. Stirrup style minimally impacted rider position or the forces experienced; however, forces differed by gait. Future studies regarding how a rider's experience and painful joints may contribute to asymmetries are warranted.