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Braun V, Kanstinger A, Dahlem D. [Mycotoxin intoxication in 54 dogs after ingestion of walnuts]. TIERARZTLICHE PRAXIS. AUSGABE K, KLEINTIERE/HEIMTIERE 2024; 52:211-219. [PMID: 39173649 DOI: 10.1055/a-2344-6146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/24/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The aim of this retrospective study was to decribe the intoxication with tremorgenic mycotoxins subsequent to the ingestion of walnuts in a large population of dogs and the evaluation of the development of the clinical signs under the initiated treatment. MATERIAL AND METHODS The study included 54 dogs exhibiting signs of tremor, hyperesthesia, hyperthermia and ataxia, in particular a few hours following observed ingestion of walnuts or its justified suspicion. RESULTS The patients were presented to the clinic mostly during winter and spring. Fifty-three of 54 dogs were hospitalized for symptomatic, decontaminating and eliminating therapy (98%). Symptomatic treatment comprised of anticonvulsant therapy in 14 dogs (26%) and an antiemetic therapy in for half of the patients (n=27; 50%). A forced emesis for decontamination was undertaken in only 6 patients due to the severity of their neurological symptoms (11%). For further decontamination, an oral administration of activated charcoal after improvement of clinical signs (n=39; 72%). The majority of dogs (n=45; 83%) additionally received an intravenous lipid therapy for toxin elimination and isotonic crystalloid solution to compensate fluid losses. There were no side effects observed following the administration of intravenous lipid therapy. The majority of dogs were hospitalized for a duration of 2 days (n=44; 81%). In most dogs, examination was unremarkable on the day of their release (n=39; 72%). Potential long-term sequelae of the intoxication were not recorded in any patient. CONCLUSION Due to the lipophilic nature of mycotoxins, the use of intravenous lipid therapy may considered for toxin elimination purposes. The prognosis of mycotoxin intoxication following walnut ingestion is good with decontamination and elimination measures. CLINICAL RELEVANCE In the case of unspecific neurological signs such as tremor, ataxia and hyperesthesia as well as a corresponding preliminary report, an intoxication with mycotoxin-containing walnuts should be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Braun
- Abteilung Innere Medizin, Kleintierklinik Ettlingen, Tierärztliche Klinik für Chirurgie, Praxis für Kleintiere, Ettlingen
| | - Alina Kanstinger
- Abteilung Innere Medizin, Kleintierklinik Ettlingen, Tierärztliche Klinik für Chirurgie, Praxis für Kleintiere, Ettlingen
| | - Dorothee Dahlem
- Abteilung Innere Medizin, Kleintierklinik Ettlingen, Tierärztliche Klinik für Chirurgie, Praxis für Kleintiere, Ettlingen
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Otero C, Arredondo C, Echeverría-Vega A, Gordillo-Fuenzalida F. Penicillium spp. mycotoxins found in food and feed and their health effects. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2020. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2019.2556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by fungi. These compounds have different structures and target different organs, acting at different steps of biological processes inside the cell. Around 32 mycotoxins have been identified in fungal Penicillium spp. isolated from food and feed. Some of these species are important pathogens which contaminate food, such as maize, cereals, soybeans, sorghum, peanuts, among others. These microorganisms can be present in different steps of the food production process, such as plant growth, harvest, drying, elaboration, transport, and packaging. Although some Penicillium spp. are pathogens, some of them are used in elaboration of processed foods, such as cheese and sausages. This review summarises the Penicillium spp. mycotoxin toxicity, focusing mainly on the subgenus Penicillium, frequently found in food and feed. Toxicity is reviewed both in animal models and cultured cells. Finally, some aspects of their regulations are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. Otero
- Escuela de Química y Farmacia, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Andrés Bello, República 252, Santiago, Chile
| | - C. Arredondo
- Laboratorio de Neuroepigenética, Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas (ICB), Facultad de Medicina y Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andrés Bello, República 330, Santiago, Chile
| | - A. Echeverría-Vega
- Centro de Investigación en Estudios Avanzados del Maule (CIEAM), Vicerrectoría de Investigación y Postgrado, Universidad Católica del Maule, Talca, Chile
| | - F. Gordillo-Fuenzalida
- Centro de Biotecnología de los Recursos Naturales (CENBIO), Laboratorio de Microbiología Aplicada, Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias y Forestales, Universidad Católica del Maule, Avda. San Miguel 3605, Talca, Chile
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In Vitro Toxicokinetics and Phase I Biotransformation of the Mycotoxin Penitrem A in Dogs. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12050293. [PMID: 32375391 PMCID: PMC7290812 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12050293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2020] [Revised: 04/22/2020] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The tremorgenic mycotoxin penitrem A is produced by Penicillium species as a secondary metabolite on moldy food and feed. Dogs are sometimes exposed to penitrem A by consumption of spoiled food waste or fallen fruit. The lipophilic toxin crosses the blood-brain barrier and targets neuroreceptors and neurotransmitter release mechanisms in the central and peripheral nervous systems. Typical symptoms of penitrem A intoxication are periodical or continuous tremors, which can be passing, persistent or lethal, depending on the absorbed dose. There is presently no information on the biotransformation and toxicokinetics of penitrem A in dogs. The aim of the present study was therefore to identify potential metabolites of the toxin by performing in vitro biotransformation assays in dog liver microsomes. Analyses by liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry led to the provisional identification of eleven penitrem A phase I metabolites, which were tentatively characterized as various oxidation products. Furthermore, elimination parameters determined in in vitro assays run under linear kinetics were used for in vitro-to-in vivo extrapolation of the toxicokinetic data, predicting a maximal bioavailability of more than 50%. The metabolite profile detected in the in vitro assays was similar to that observed in the plasma of an intoxicated dog, confirming the predictive capability of the in vitro approach.
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Kozák L, Szilágyi Z, Tóth L, Pócsi I, Molnár I. Tremorgenic and neurotoxic paspaline-derived indole-diterpenes: biosynthetic diversity, threats and applications. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2019; 103:1599-1616. [PMID: 30613899 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-018-09594-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2018] [Revised: 12/15/2018] [Accepted: 12/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Indole-diterpenes (IDTs) such as the aflatrems, janthitrems, lolitrems, paspalitrems, penitrems, shearinines, sulpinines, and terpendoles are biogenetically related but structurally varied tremorgenic and neurotoxic mycotoxins produced by fungi. All these metabolites derive from the biosynthetic intermediate paspaline, a frequently occurring IDT on its own right. In this comprehensive review, we highlight the similarities and differences of the IDT biosynthetic pathways that lead to the generation of the main paspaline-derived IDT subgroups. We survey the taxonomic distribution and the regulation of IDT production in various fungi and compare the organization of the known IDT biosynthetic gene clusters. A detailed assessment of the highly diverse biological activities of these mycotoxins leads us to emphasize the significant losses that paspaline-derived IDTs cause in agriculture, and compels us to warn about the various hazards they represent towards human and livestock health. Conversely, we also describe the potential utility of these versatile molecules as lead compounds for pharmaceutical drug discovery, and examine the prospects for their industrial scale manufacture in genetically manipulated IDT producers or domesticated host microorganisms in synthetic biological production systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- László Kozák
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Microbiology, Institute of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary
- Teva Pharmaceutical Works Ltd., Debrecen, Hungary
| | | | - László Tóth
- Teva Pharmaceutical Works Ltd., Debrecen, Hungary
| | - István Pócsi
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Microbiology, Institute of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary.
| | - István Molnár
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Microbiology, Institute of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary.
- Southwest Center for Natural Products Research, School of Natural Resources and the Environment, University of Arizona, Tucson, USA.
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Bauer JI, Gross M, Hamscher G, Usleber E. A Rapid Screening Method for the Tremorgenic Indole-Diterpene Alkaloid Mycotoxin Paxilline in Beer. FOOD ANAL METHOD 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s12161-017-1085-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Zhang L, Dou XW, Zhang C, Logrieco AF, Yang MH. A Review of Current Methods for Analysis of Mycotoxins in Herbal Medicines. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E65. [PMID: 29393905 PMCID: PMC5848166 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10020065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2017] [Revised: 01/30/2018] [Accepted: 01/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The presence of mycotoxins in herbal medicines is an established problem throughout the entire world. The sensitive and accurate analysis of mycotoxin in complicated matrices (e.g., herbs) typically involves challenging sample pretreatment procedures and an efficient detection instrument. However, although numerous reviews have been published regarding the occurrence of mycotoxins in herbal medicines, few of them provided a detailed summary of related analytical methods for mycotoxin determination. This review focuses on analytical techniques including sampling, extraction, cleanup, and detection for mycotoxin determination in herbal medicines established within the past ten years. Dedicated sections of this article address the significant developments in sample preparation, and highlight the importance of this procedure in the analytical technology. This review also summarizes conventional chromatographic techniques for mycotoxin qualification or quantitation, as well as recent studies regarding the development and application of screening assays such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, lateral flow immunoassays, aptamer-based lateral flow assays, and cytometric bead arrays. The present work provides a good insight regarding the advanced research that has been done and closes with an indication of future demand for the emerging technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Xiao-Wen Dou
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Cheng Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Antonio F Logrieco
- National Research Council of Italy, CNR-ISPA, Via G. Amendola, 122/O, I-70126 Bari, Italy.
| | - Mei-Hua Yang
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China.
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Berntsen HF, Bogen IL, Wigestrand MB, Fonnum F, Walaas SI, Moldes-Anaya A. The fungal neurotoxin penitrem A induces the production of reactive oxygen species in human neutrophils at submicromolar concentrations. Toxicology 2017; 392:64-70. [PMID: 29037868 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2017.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2017] [Revised: 10/05/2017] [Accepted: 10/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Penitrem A is a fungal neurotoxin that recurrently causes intoxication in animals, and occasionally also in humans. We have previously reported that penitrem A induced the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in rat cerebellar granule cells, opening for a new mechanism of action for the neurotoxin. The aim of this study was to examine the potential of penitrem A to induce ROS production in isolated human neutrophil granulocytes, and to study possible mechanisms involved. Penitrem A significantly increased the production of ROS in human neutrophils at concentrations as low as 0.25μM (40% increase over basal levels), as measured with the DCF fluorescence assay. The EC50 determined for the production of ROS by penitrem A was 3.8μM. The maximal increase in ROS production was approximately 330% over basal levels at a concentration of 12.5μM. ROS formation was significantly inhibited by the antioxidant vitamin E (50μM), the intracellular Ca+2 chelator BAPTA-AM (5μM), the mitogen activated protein kinase kinase (MEK) 1/2 and 5 inhibitor U0126 (1 and 10μM), the p38 mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) inhibitor SB203580 (1μM), the c-Jun amino-terminal kinase (JNK) inhibitor SP600125 (10μM), and the calcineurin inhibitors FK-506 and cyclosporine A (1.5 and 0.5μM, respectively). These finding suggest that penitrem A is able to induce an increase in ROS production in neutrophils via the activation of several MAPK-signalling pathways. We suggest that this increase may partly explain the pathophysiology generated by penitrem A neuromycotoxicosis in both humans and animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- H F Berntsen
- Department of Administration, Lab Animal Unit, National Institute of Occupational Health, P.O. Box 8149 Dep, 0033 Oslo, Norway
| | - I L Bogen
- Oslo University Hospital, Department of Forensic Sciences, Section of Drug Abuse Research, P.O. Box 4950 Nydalen, N-0424 Oslo, Norway
| | - M B Wigestrand
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Department of Biochemistry, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1112 Blindern, N-0317 Oslo, Norway
| | - F Fonnum
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Department of Biochemistry, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1112 Blindern, N-0317 Oslo, Norway
| | - S I Walaas
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Department of Biochemistry, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1112 Blindern, N-0317 Oslo, Norway
| | - A Moldes-Anaya
- Section of Chemistry and Toxicology, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, N-0106 Oslo, Norway; R&D Section, PET-center, University Hospital of North Norway (UNN), P.O. Box 100 Langnes, N-9038 Tromsø, Norway.
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Camardo Leggieri M, Decontardi S, Bertuzzi T, Pietri A, Battilani P. Modeling Growth and Toxin Production of Toxigenic Fungi Signaled in Cheese under Different Temperature and Water Activity Regimes. Toxins (Basel) 2016; 9:E4. [PMID: 28029129 PMCID: PMC5308237 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9010004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2016] [Revised: 12/20/2016] [Accepted: 12/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate in vitro and model the effect of temperature (T) and water activity (aw) conditions on growth and toxin production by some toxigenic fungi signaled in cheese. Aspergillus versicolor, Penicillium camemberti, P. citrinum, P. crustosum, P. nalgiovense, P. nordicum, P. roqueforti, P. verrucosum were considered they were grown under different T (0-40 °C) and aw (0.78-0.99) regimes. The highest relative growth occurred around 25 °C; all the fungi were very susceptible to aw and 0.99 was optimal for almost all species (except for A. versicolor, awopt = 0.96). The highest toxin production occurred between 15 and 25 °C and 0.96-0.99 aw. Therefore, during grana cheese ripening, managed between 15 and 22 °C, ochratoxin A (OTA), penitrem A (PA), roquefortine-C (ROQ-C) and mycophenolic acid (MPA) are apparently at the highest production risk. Bete and logistic function described fungal growth under different T and aw regimes well, respectively. Bete function described also STC, PA, ROQ-C and OTA production as well as function of T. These models would be very useful as starting point to develop a mechanistic model to predict fungal growth and toxin production during cheese ripening and to help advising the most proper setting of environmental factors to minimize the contamination risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Camardo Leggieri
- Department of Sustainable Crop Production-Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Via E. Parmense, 84, 29122 Piacenza, Italy.
| | - Simone Decontardi
- Department of Sustainable Crop Production-Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Via E. Parmense, 84, 29122 Piacenza, Italy.
| | - Terenzio Bertuzzi
- Institute of Food & Feed Science and Nutrition-Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Via E. Parmense, 84, 29122 Piacenza, Italy.
| | - Amedeo Pietri
- Institute of Food & Feed Science and Nutrition-Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Via E. Parmense, 84, 29122 Piacenza, Italy.
| | - Paola Battilani
- Department of Sustainable Crop Production-Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Via E. Parmense, 84, 29122 Piacenza, Italy.
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Fæste CK, Moldes-Anaya A. Biotransformation of the fungal neurotoxin Thomitrem A by primary rat hepatocytes. Toxicon 2016; 124:36-43. [PMID: 27816536 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2016.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2016] [Revised: 10/19/2016] [Accepted: 11/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The tremorgenic mycotoxin Thomitrem A is a secondary metabolite produced mainly by the fungus Penicillium crustosum that is frequently found on spoiled stored food and feed. Typical signs of intoxication observed in dogs after the consumption of food waste are emesis, tremors, seizures progressing to ataxia and lack of coordinated movements. How uptake of Thomitrem A relates to exposure is unknown so far since data on biotransformation and toxicokinetics are missing. In this study the toxin was therefore metabolised in an exploratory in vitro experiment by rat hepatocytes, and substrate depletion as well as the formation of hepatic metabolites were investigated. Seven metabolites were characterised by their retention times and fragmentation patterns in LC-MS/MS analysis. They were found to be products of oxidation and dehydration processes and occurred at different incubation time points, showing different signal abundance-time curve profiles. Toxicokinetic parameters were derived from the Thomitrem A depletion curve applying principles of in vitro-to-in vivo extrapolation (IVIVE). The predicted medium maximum bioavailability in rats could be of importance for the assessment of exposure in cases of intoxication if it was confirmed in vivo and in other species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christiane K Fæste
- Section of Chemistry and Toxicology, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Oslo, Norway
| | - Angel Moldes-Anaya
- Neurobiology Research Group, Department of Clinical Medicine, UiT-The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway.
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Barug D, van Egmond H. Foreword. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2013. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2013.x002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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