Chemical Contaminants in Milk and Public Health Concerns: A Review

Assessment of essential and potentially toxic metals in raw cow milk from Mukaturi town, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia

Cow milk is a complete and highly nutritious source of food for humans. However, the quality of milk products has become a significant health concern for consumers, particularly infants and children, in many developing nations, including Ethiopia. The objective of this study was to determine the heavy metal levels in raw cow milk collected from dairy producers and collection centers in Mukaturi town, Ethiopia. Sixty raw cow milk samples (40.0 milk samples from dairy farms and 20.0 milk samples from collection centers) were randomly collected and digested using a mixture of nitric acid (HNO3), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and perchloric acid (HClO4) on a hot plate. The amounts of heavy metals (Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn) in the milk samples were determined using inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES). The findings showed that the average concentrations of Pb (2.31 ± 0.127), Fe (0.566 ± 0.130), Ni (0.210 ± 0.0189), Cd (0.0372 ± 0.0230), Cr (0.369 ± 0.0162), and Co (0.225 ± 0.0150) in mgL-1 were higher than the allowable limits. This could pose a health risk to the public. However, the concentrations of Mn (0.044 ± 0.0369), Cu (0.195 ± 0.0450) and Zn (2.90 ± 0.0570) in mg L-1 were lower than or within the recommended limits and cannot pose any threat to consumers. The validity of the digestion processes was checked by the recovery test. The percentage recoveries of Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn were found to be in the range of 80.7-122 %, which is within the acceptable range. Therefore, special attention should be given to the continuous monitoring of heavy metal levels in raw milk among dairy producers and collection centers to minimize economic losses and the risk to consumer safety.

Determination of the levels of 17-β Estradiol and Progesterone in Cow milk and Baby Follow-on milk by ELISA

The current study was undertaken to determine the 17-β Estradiol (E2) and Progesterone (P4) levels in different milk products and some baby follow-on milk samples collected from retail markets in Türkiye. For this purpose, a total of 50 samples from 8 different product groups with different fat levels, production technologies, and production series were analyzed for natural P4 and E2 levels using a commercial ELISA kit. The highest E2 level was determined in UHT whole milk (3%) (39.20 ± 6.73 pmol·L-1) while the lowest level was found in buttermilk (26.50 ± 1.85 pmol·L-1) samples. For P4 levels, the highest concentration were found in baby follow-on milk (<1 year old) (45.83 ± 2.95 nmol·L-1) and the lowest values were found in pasteurized milk samples (23.00 ± 6.66 nmol·L-1). Also, in this study, differences among the product groups for E2 and P4 were not found statistically (P>0.05). In conclusion, the natural P4 and E2 were detected in all milk and baby follow-on milks at various levels and generally their levels associated with the product fat level.

Persistent Organic Pollutants and Fatty Acid Profile in a Typical Cheese from Extensive Farms: First Assessment of Human Exposure by Dietary Intake

Dairy products represent an important source of beneficial substances for humans. At the same time, they can expose the consumers to environmental contaminants ingested by animals through their diet, influencing their health negatively. This experiment aims to evaluate the risk and benefits related to the consumption of typical stretched cheeses, considering their fatty acid (FA) profile and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) content. Six representative farms, two of them organic, raising Cinisara cattle were selected, considering the typical extensive management systems, based on feeding of natural pasture integrated with concentrate and hay depending on the availability of forage on pastures. A total of 18 cheeses produced in winter, spring and summer with bulk milk of each farm were sampled and analyzed. The chemical composition of cheeses was influenced by farm management, and the FA profile mainly by the season. In particular, cheeses made in spring showed a healthier FA profile with the content of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), of omega3-PUFA and omega6/omega3 ratio pair to 7.29%, 1.44% and 1.32, respectively, while in winter 5.44%, 0.98% and 2.55, respectively, and in summer 4.77% 0.49% and 3.04, respectively. Due to high levels of feeding integration, cheese made in winter presented unhealthier characteristics compared to the cheeses made in spring and summer, showing high levels of saturated FA (66.2%, 64.2% and 65.5%, respectively), and large contents of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) (57.07 ng/g fat, 36.25 ng/g fat and 10.22 ng/g fat, respectively) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) (36.19 ng/g fat, 4.68 ng/g fat and 3.73 ng/g fat, respectively), mainly in those from non-organic farms. Levels of PCBs considered to be hazardous to human health were found in nine samples.

The effect of high hydrostatic pressure on tetracycline hydrochloride and sulfathiazole residues in various food matrices - comparison with ultrasound and heat treatment

Antibiotic residues in food pose serious direct and indirect risks for consumers. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) on tetracycline hydrochloride (TCH) and sulfathiazole (STZ) residues in honey, milk, and water. Three different pressures were tested for their efficiency and treatment at 580 MPa for 6 min was finally selected. Qualitative and quantitative determination of antibiotics were performed with HPLC and LC-MS. HHP treatment was compared to ultrasound and heat treatment. HHP treatment was found to be more effective than the other two methods for both antibiotics in water and milk. The reduction of STZ in honey was over 90%, while no reduction was observed for TCH. The highest TCH reduction was recorded after HHP treatment in water (76.4%) and the highest STZ reduction after ultrasound treatment in honey (94.3%). Reduction of the two antibiotics in different matrices did not follow a similar pattern. For the HHP treatment, the effect of the initial concentration of the two antibiotics was studied under two different storage conditions (refrigerated and frozen storage). The effectiveness of the method was found to be affected by the initial concentration, in both storage conditions for STZ, while for TCH significant differences were observed only for refrigerated storage.

Transfer of lead from soil to pasture grass and milk near a metallurgical complex in the Peruvian Andes

Milk quality is affected by the concentration of lead (Pb) in soil and pasture grasses used to raise cattle, especially in areas near mining-metallurgical complexes. In this study, the Pb content of soil and its transfer to grass and dairy milk in an area located to 20 km from the La Oroya Metallurgical Complex in Peru (altitude, >3,700 m s.a.l) was measured. Twenty soil samples (0–30 cm depth), 20 grass samples were collected, and 0.5 L of milk was obtained from 20 lactating cow in the communal cowshed. The Pb concentration (mg/kg) was quantified by flame atomic absorption spectrometry using a commercial Pb standard as quality control. The Pb average concentration in the soil, grass, and milk samples were 217.81 ± 39.48, 20.09 ± 2.83, and 0.58 ± 0.018 mg/kg (P < 0.01), respectively. The transfer factor (ratio of metal concentration) for Pb from soil to grass and from grass to milk was 0.095 and 0.031, respectively. The soil, grass, and milk samples all presented high Pb concentrations, with the milk samples containing 29-fold more Pb than the safety limit established by European regulations and were not suitable for human consumption or the manufacture of cheese, yogurt, and other derivatives. Our findings demonstrate that action to remediate these soils is critically needed.

Steroid Hormone Exposure as a Potential Hazard in Milk Consumers: A Significant Health Challenge in Iran

The presence of steroid hormones in milk is inevitable, and they can be considered as potential carcinogenic agents for consumers. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the level of 17β-estradiol, progesterone, and hydroxyprogesterone in sixty-nine bovine milk samples, collected from April to September 2020, in Hamadan, Iran. The milk samples were analyzed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). In this study, the mean contents of 17β-estradiol, progesterone, and hydroxyprogesterone in the milk samples were determined to be 330.5 ± 190.2 pg/ml, 3.57 ± 2.47 ng/ml, and 1.54 ± 0.41 ng/ml, respectively. However, the content of these steroid hormones in milk samples could be considered safe in children and adults, if the milk consumption is assumed to be in the reported range (175–240 ml/daily). Due to the effects of steroid hormones, especially 17β-estradiol, in the etiology of various cancers, regular monitoring of these hormones is recommended in milk and its dairy products in Iran.

Heavy metal and pesticide levels in dairy products: Evaluation of human health risk

Cattle milk's health benefits can be compromised by the presence of contaminants. The levels of cadmium, copper, lead and zinc, and residues of dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE), dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane (DDD), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) were determined in soil, milk and cheese samples collected from cow farms from 3 Romanian areas with industrial and agriculture tradition. A new methodology was applied for the determination of the corrected estimated daily intake (cEDI) corresponding to the aggregate dietary exposure. For the risk assessment, we calculated the source hazard quotient (HQs) for each contaminant and the adversity specific hazard index (HIA). Cadmium, copper, lead and zinc, and the sum of DDT levels in soil samples were below maximum residue levels (MRLs). The MRLs of lead and DDD were exceeded in milk and cheese samples from all the 3 areas. The MRLs of copper and zinc were exceeded in cheese samples from area 2 and 3. HQs >10 for lead indicates increased risk, while HQ > 1 for copper and sum of DDT indicates moderate risk for both milk and cheese. By calculating the HI_A, we identified a moderate and increase risk for nephrotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, hematotoxicity, cardiotoxicity and reproduction toxicity after consumption of the dairy products from the 3 areas.

Microbiological and physicochemical characteristics of buffalo milk used for dairy products in southern Brazil

In Brazil, the buffalo milk market has been growing. However, identity and quality standards have not been established for this raw material, nor have proper distinctions between buffalo milk and bovine milk been defined. Currently, the State of Rio Grande do Sul (RS) has only three producers that supply raw material for officially marketed derivatives. The aim of this study was to determine the identity and quality standards of raw buffalo milk in this region. Samples were obtained biweekly from three farm cooling tanks between June 2017 and August 2018, to reach a total of 69 samples. The averages for the results of the physicochemical parameters fat, protein, lactose, total solids, SNF (solids-not-fat), calcium, density, FP, acidity and SCC were 5.5 g/100 g, 4.06 g/100 g, 5.07 g/100 g, 15.5 g/100 g, 9.96 g/100 g, 0.161 g/100 g, 1.034 g/ml, -0.527°C, 16°D and 95 × 103 cells/ml, respectively. With reference to the microbiological parameters, the mean of the Standard Plate Count (SPC) and thermotolerant coliforms were 9,0 × 104 CFU/ml and 1.6 × 102 MPN/ml, respectively. Regarding coagulase-positive staphylococci, 36 samples tested positive (52% of total). Neither Salmonella spp. nor Listeria monocytogenes, nor antibiotic or antiparasitic residues were detected in any sample. In conclusion, the buffalo milk used as raw material for dairy products in southern Brazil demonstrated satisfactory physicochemical and microbiological characteristics, in accordance with recent scientific literature.

Harmonized One Health Trans-Species and Community Surveillance for Tackling Antibacterial Resistance in India: Protocol for a Mixed Methods Study

Background

India has the largest burden of drug‑resistant organisms compared with other countries around the world, including multiresistant and extremely drug‑resistant tuberculosis and resistant Gram‑negative and Gram‑positive bacteria. Antibiotic resistant bacteria are found in all living hosts and in the environment and move between hosts and ecosystems. An intricate interplay of infections, exposure to antibiotics, and disinfectants at individual and community levels among humans, animals, birds, and fishes triggers evolution and spread of resistance. The One Health framework proposes addressing antibiotic resistance as a complex multidisciplinary problem. However, the evidence base in the Indian context is limited.

Objective

This multisectoral, trans-species surveillance project aims to document the infection and resistance patterns of 7 resistant-priority bacteria and the risk factors for resistance following the One Health framework and geospatial epidemiology.

Methods

This hospital- and community-based surveillance adopts a cross-sectional design with mixed methodology (quantitative, qualitative, and spatial) data collection. This study is being conducted at 6 microbiology laboratories and communities in Khurda district, Odisha, India. The laboratory surveillance collects data on bacteria isolates from different hosts and their resistance patterns. The hosts for infection surveillance include humans, animals (livestock, food chain, and pet animals), birds (poultry), and freshwater fishes (not crustaceans). For eligible patients, animals, birds and fishes, detailed data from their households or farms on health care seeking (for animals, birds and fishes, the illness, and care seeking of the caretakers), antibiotic use, disinfection practices, and neighborhood exposure to infection risks will be collected. Antibiotic prescription and use patterns at hospitals and clinics, and therapeutic and nontherapeutic antibiotic and disinfectant use in farms will also be collected. Interviews with key informants from animal breeding, agriculture, and food processing will explore the perceptions, attitudes, and practices related to antibiotic use. The data analysis will follow quantitative (descriptive and analytical), qualitative, and geospatial epidemiology principles.

Results

The study was funded in May 2019 and approved by Institute Ethics Committees in March 2019. The data collection started in September 2019 and shall continue till March 2021. As of June 2020, data for 56 humans, 30 animals and birds, and fishes from 10 ponds have been collected. Data analysis is yet to be done.

Conclusions

This study will inform about the bacterial infection and resistance epidemiology among different hosts, the risk factors for infection, and resistance transmission. In addition, it will identify the potential triggers and levers for further exploration and action.

International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID)

DERR1-10.2196/23241

Human pharmaceutical and pesticide residues in Israeli dairy milk in association with dietary risk assessment

Throughout the world, more than six billion people consume milk and milk products yearly. The safety and quality of dairy milk are regularly monitored in most countries worldwide. The Israeli monitoring program of chemical residues in milk has not changed in the last decades, focusing only on major veterinary drugs and few selected environmental contaminants such as heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants. Consequently, a knowledge gap exists regarding the potential occurrence of other chemicals such as human pharmaceuticals and non-monitored pesticides in milk. In this survey, 51 commercial bovine and goat milk samples were analysed by LC-MS/MS and pharmaceutical and pesticide residues are reported in the range of 0.1-93 µg/L. Israeli milk samples revealed at least one and up to five chemical residues simultaneously. The pesticides found in milk were below the European maximum residue limit values. The risk assessment performed, indicated negligible risk.

Removal of Antibiotics from Water by Polymer of Intrinsic Microporosity: Isotherms, Kinetics, Thermodynamics, and Adsorption Mechanism

Traces of antibiotics within domestic and industrial effluents have toxic impact on human health as well as surrounding flora and fauna. Potential increase in antibiotic resistance of microorganisms is likely to rise due to the incomplete removal of antibiotics by traditional wastewater processing, methods such as membrane filtration and biological treatment. In this study, we investigated a novel class of material termed Polymer of Intrinsic Microporosity (PIM) that is based on amorphous microporous organic materials for the application of antibiotic removal form aqueous environments. The adsorption of four commonly used antibiotics (doxycycline, ciprofloxacin, penicillin G, and amoxicillin) was evaluated and found that at least 80% of the initial concentrations was eliminated under the optimized conditions. Langmuir and Freundlich models were then employed to correlate the equilibria data; the Freundlich model fit well the data in all cases. For kinetic data, pseudo-first and second order models were examined. Pseudo-second order model fit well the kinetic data and allowed the calculation of the adsorption rate constants. Thermodynamic parameters were obtained by conducting the adsorption studies at varied reaction temperatures. Surface potential, adsorption at various solution pHs, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), Infrared spectroscopy (IR), and surface area experiments were conducted to draw possible adsorption mechanisms. The removal of antibiotics from water by PIM-1 is likely to be governed by both surface and pore-filling adsorption and could be facilitated by electrostatic interactions between the aromatic rings and charged functional groups as well as hydrogen bond formation between the adsorbent and adsorbate. Our work shows that the application of such novel microporous material could contribute to the removal of such challenging and persistent contaminants from wastewater with further optimizations of large-scale adsorption processes.

Mineral Elements in the Raw Milk of Several Dairy Farms in the Province of Alberta

The objective of this study was to determine the concentrations of 20 minerals in the whole raw milk from Holstein dairy cows in the province of Alberta, Canada. A total of 156 milk samples were collected from 26 dairy farms (n = 6 per farm) and analyzed with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) for five macrominerals (Ca, Mg, P, K, and Na), ten microminerals (Bo, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ru, Se, St, and Zn), and five heavy metals (Al, As, Cd, Cr, and Pb). Calculated means were compared with their recommended daily intakes (RDIs) or minimal risk levels (MRLs) obtained from several food safety agencies and with data obtained from a world meta-analytical study we conducted previously. Results of the present study showed differences in the concentrations of multiple minerals between the Alberta farms involved and world averages (WA) and within Alberta farms. Concentrations of macrominerals, including Ca, Mg, P, K, and Na, in the raw milk were greater in Alberta dairy farms than the WA (p < 00.5; except Ca). Of note, concentrations of Ca showed the highest variability among Alberta farms, with 11 farms having lower milk Ca than WA. The other macrominerals were higher than WA in more than 88% of Alberta farms. Data demonstrated that concentrations of microminerals, including Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, and Mo, in Alberta raw milk were lower compared with WA (p < 0.05). Selenium was the only element in raw milk that was found to have higher concentrations in all farms in Alberta vs. WA. High variability was observed for B, Sr, and Zn, which were lower in multiple locations around the province. Concentrations of heavy metals in the Alberta raw milk, including Al, As, Cd, and Pb, were lower than WA, whereas concentrations of Cr were higher. Most importantly, all heavy metals were below their respective MRLs in all analyzed samples. Overall, data from this study showed that raw milk from Holstein dairy cows in Alberta has concentrations of most mineral elements below their MRLs and some of them different from WA. Of note, although concentrations of Se and Zn in the raw milk were higher in Alberta compared with WA, their concentrations were still below their respective MRLs.

Potential Hazards Associated with Raw Donkey Milk Consumption: A Review

Donkey milk can be used as a substitute for infants and children who suffer from cow milk proteins intolerance and multiple food hypersensitivity. Up to date, this is one of the main reasons why donkey milk has become a substantial area for reasearch, with an increase over the the last fifteen years. In donkey milk chain, risk analysis should be the object of particular attention because children are the main consumers of this food. In fact, this process is one of the main tool to achieve a high level of protection of human health and life; thus, the most important safety hazards should be monitored in order to attain this goal. This review focuses on the main hazards possibly present in raw donkey milk, including bacteria, fungal toxins, parasites, and chemical pollutants. Literature data have been considered, including some information that is not provided in the international literature. In the authors' opinion, the current scientific knowledge should be improved, with the aim of allowing a suitable risk assessment along the whole donkey milk chain. However, in the meantime, the competent authorithies must carry out more stringent official controls, with particular attention given to the level of primary production. The issue of a traceability system in donkey milk chain should be considered of paramount importance.

Risk associated with the intake of aflatoxin M1 from milk in Iran

Aflatoxin M1 is an oxidative metabolite of aflatoxin B1 formed in liver and excreted into milk, urine and faeces of dairy cattle and other mammalian species. The International Agency for Research on Cancer classified aflatoxin M1 in Group 2B because of its potential to get bioactivated to a mutagen analogous to aflatoxin B1. Risk assessments are undertaken to guide food regulators and scientists in risk management processes, such as the legislative levels or guideline targets for mycotoxins in food supplies. Using existing international resources for hazard data and local exposure data, and based on cancer potency as the endpoint, the risk of exposure to aflatoxin M1 in milk for the Iranian population was calculated considering various scenarios. During 2014-2015, 518 samples were collected from the market and tested for aflatoxin M1 contamination by HPLC-FLD. The most probable scenarios calculated as mean occurrence multiplied by the mean consumption in consumers of milk, and for maximum level allowed for aflatoxin M1 in milk with 99 percentiles of milk consumption showed the risk of 0.08 and 0.72 additional liver cancer cases per year for the Iranian population, respectively. Thus, our study reveals a low risk and that the current maximum limit of 100 ng/l for aflatoxin M1 in milk, heat treated milk and flavoured milk is sustainable.

Evaluation of the hepatocyte-derived cell line BFH12 as an in vitro model for bovine biotransformation

The knowledge of drug metabolising enzymes (DMEs) in cattle is rather limited. The capability of the bovine foetal hepatocyte-derived cell line BFH12 to serve as model for biotransformation was evaluated. Gene expression analysis of DMEs was performed by reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR). The presence of efflux transporters was visualised by immunocytochemistry, and functional induction of cytochrome P450 (CYP) 1A was assessed by the ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) assay. The production of bile acids was measured by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). RT-PCR revealed the expression of cytochromes 1A1, 1A2, 3A4 and phase II enzymes UGT1A1, UGT1A6 and GSTM1. Immunofluorescence demonstrated efflux transporters ABCG2 and ABCC1. The EROD assay revealed a dose-dependent CYP1A induction after treatment with benzo[a]pyrene (BP). LC-MS/MS analysis of cell culture supernatants showed the production of bile acids including taurocholic acid, tauro-chenodeoxycholic acid, taurodeoxycholic acid and taurolithocholic acid. The results strongly suggest the applicability of the cell line BFH12 for subsequent experiments in the emerging field of bovine biotransformation.

Removal of antibiotics from water and waste milk by ozonation: kinetics, byproducts, and antimicrobial activity

The use of antibiotics in the dairy farming for curing and growth promotion results in the production of massive quantities of non-recyclable wastewater by the conventional purification techniques. Additionally, waste milk is produced during the drug withholding periods, which is not suitable for human or animal consumption and cause huge economic loss as well as present serious environmental waste. This study was designed to investigate the decomposition of various antibiotic compounds in un-buffered aqueous solutions and milk samples by ozonation process. Commonly administered broad-spectrum antibiotics such as amoxicillin, doxycycline, ciprofloxacin, and sulphadiazine were selected as model examples in the current investigation. Gradual exposure of these antibiotics to increasing ozone gas concentration induced increasing removal percentages of the antibiotics in spiked water and milk samples. The removal reached 95% across all the tested treated antibiotics with ozone dose as low as 75 mg L^-1. It was noted that the removal of antibiotics in milk samples is more efficient with faster rate constants. This was attributed to the self-buffering characteristic of milk that maintains the neutral pH, keeping the amine groups un-protonated and more reactive towards the electrophilic attack by the molecular ozone. ¹H NMR as well as HPLC experiments support the near complete removal of antibiotics and indicated the break down to simpler and more soluble fragments of acidic nature. Bacterial growth experiments, conducted with E. coli, and milk ageing experiments provided clear evidences that the resulting decomposition byproducts lack both toxicity effect and antimicrobial activity. This study provides a viable route to remove hazardous materials, which contribute to a growing issue of antibiotic resistance of pathogenic bacteria.

Minerals and Heavy Metals in the Whole Raw Milk of Dairy Cows from Different Management Systems and Countries of Origin: A Meta-Analytical Study

The objective of this meta-analytical study was to investigate selected macrominerals, microminerals, and toxic heavy metals in the bovine whole-raw-milk (WRM) samples of published data. An analytical data set was constructed from 72 different studies from 37 countries with two types of production systems: a conventional production system (CPS) and an organic production system (OPS) compared with commercially available or retail-store-available milk (COM). Results of the meta-analytical study showed differences in the concentrations of macrominerals. Concentrations of Ca, Mg, K, and P were greater in the CPS samples, whereas Na was greater in the COM samples ( P < 0.05). Data also demonstrated that concentrations of microminerals like Cu, I, Fe, Mn, Se, and Zn in the organic WRM were lower ( P < 0.05) compared with the milk from CPS. The highest concentration of Ni was reported for COM ( P < 0.05); however, this value was below the minimum-risk level (MRL). Concentrations of heavy metals like As and Ni were greater in CPS milk than those in organic milk ( P < 0.05). In addition, there were greater concentrations of Cd and Pb in the WRM from CPS versus that from the organic farms. Concentration of Al was lowest in the OPS milk versus Al in the CPS which was 6.5-fold greater than in organic milk. The amount of Hg was below the MRL of 0.01 μmol/L for all production systems. A high variability was observed in the published data regarding the country of origin. Raw milk originating from Europe and North America was characterized by concentrations of macro- and microminerals below the MRLs as compared with that from specific countries, which had some minerals above the MRLs. For example, concentrations of Pb were above the MRL in the milk samples from Brazil, Croatia, Egypt, Mexico, Nigeria, Palestine, Romania, Serbia, and Turkey. Moreover, data from this study indicate that organic dairy farms are characterized by lower concentrations of toxic heavy metals in the WRM compared with those from CPS dairy farms.

Development and Application of a Probabilistic Risk-Benefit Assessment Model for Infant Feeding Integrating Microbiological, Nutritional, and Chemical Components

A probabilistic and interdisciplinary risk-benefit assessment (RBA) model integrating microbiological, nutritional, and chemical components was developed for infant milk, with the objective of predicting the health impact of different scenarios of consumption. Infant feeding is a particular concern of interest in RBA as breast milk and powder infant formula have both been associated with risks and benefits related to chemicals, bacteria, and nutrients, hence the model considers these three facets. Cronobacter sakazakii, dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (dl-PCB), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) were three risk/benefit factors selected as key issues in microbiology, chemistry, and nutrition, respectively. The present model was probabilistic with variability and uncertainty separated using a second-order Monte Carlo simulation process. In this study, advantages and limitations of undertaking probabilistic and interdisciplinary RBA are discussed. In particular, the probabilistic technique was found to be powerful in dealing with missing data and to translate assumptions into quantitative inputs while taking uncertainty into account. In addition, separation of variability and uncertainty strengthened the interpretation of the model outputs by enabling better consideration and distinction of natural heterogeneity from lack of knowledge. Interdisciplinary RBA is necessary to give more structured conclusions and avoid contradictory messages to policymakers and also to consumers, leading to more decisive food recommendations. This assessment provides a conceptual development of the RBA methodology and is a robust basis on which to build upon.

LC-MS study of the heat degradation of veterinary antibiotics in raw milk after boiling

The aim of our study was to examine the degradation of veterinary antibiotics in milk during boiling. Raw cow milk samples were fortified with the target compounds and boiled for various short time-intervals prevailing in household practice. Antibiotic concentrations were determined by LC-MS/MS measurements. Degradation rate constants, half-lives and degradation percentages were calculated. Cefoperazone and cloxacillin proved to be the less and the most heat-stable substance, with 78.3% and 9.6% degradation in 300 s respectively. Aminoglicosides exhibited intermediate (33.8-43.6%), tetracycline (30.4%) and trimethoprim (22.6%) intermediate to high heat stability. The results demonstrate that antibiotic residues possibly present in raw milk exhibit high heat stability when treated for few seconds at around 100 °C. Keeping the milk at this temperature for at least two minutes would allow varying decrease in the amount of some compounds, but does not totally eliminate the potential risks to the consumer's health.

QUALITY OF REFRIGERATED RAW MILK FROM BUFFALO COWS (Bubalus bubalis bubalis) IN DIFFERENT FARMS AND SEASONS IN BRAZIL

Abstract The present research aimed to examine the chemical and microbiological characteristics of refrigerated raw milk collected from buffalo-only dairy herds from different farms and seasons. Samples were collected from twelve farms producing buffalo milk, located in the Mideast region of São Paulo state, in Brazil, once a month throughout the dairy calendar year from 2011 to 2014. The analysis of fat, protein, lactose, dry extract, and total solids contents were carried out using Infrared Absorption. Residues for antimicrobial analysis were carried out using Delvo Test Kit technique, and both somatic cell count and standard plate count analysis were carried out using Flow Cytometry. The analysis of the chemical components as well as for the microbiological analysis of SPC proved to be statistically significant throughout the period. No antibiotic residues were found in the totality of the sample, hence indicating that the farmers complied with the current sanitary legislation in that country, as well as SCC; however, higher values were found for the SPC. Significant results for all parameters analyzed were found among the farms, indicating that price incentives paid for the quality of raw milk could be an alternative to dairy processing companies, favoring yield and quality of the final product.

Organochlorine and organophosphorus pesticide residues in fodder and milk samples along Musi river belt, India

Aim:

The present study was conducted to find the organochlorine pesticide (OCP) and organophosphorus pesticide (OPP) residues in fodder and milk samples along Musi river belt, India.

Materials and Methods:

Fodder and milk samples collected from the six zones of Musi river belt, Hyderabad India were analyzed by gas chromatography with electron capture detector for OCP residues and pulsated flame photometric detector for the presence of OPP residues.

Results:

The gas chromatographic analysis of fodder samples of Zone 5 of Musi river showed the residues of dicofol at concentration of 0.07±0.0007 (0.071-0.077). Among organophosphorus compounds, dimetheoate was present in milk samples collected from Zone 6 at a level of 0.13±0.006 (0.111-0.167). The residues of OCPs, OPPs and cyclodies were below the detection limit in the remaining fodder and milk samples collected from Musi river belt in the present study.

Conclusion:

The results indicate that the pesticide residues in fodder and milk samples were well below the maximum residue level (MRL) values, whereas dicofol in fodder and dimethoate in milk were slightly above the MRL values specified by EU and CODEX.

Health Risk Assessment of Pesticide Residues via Dietary Intake of Market Vegetables from Dhaka, Bangladesh

The present study was designed to assess the health risk of pesticide residues via dietary intake of vegetables collected from four top agro-based markets of Dhaka, Bangladesh. High performance liquid chromatography with a photo diode array detector (HPLC-PDA) was used to determine six organophosphorus (chlorpyrifos, fenitrothion, parathion, ethion, acephate, fenthion), two carbamate (carbaryl and carbofuran) and one pyrethroid (cypermethrin) pesticide residues in twelve samples of three common vegetables (tomato, lady's finger and brinjal). Pesticide residues ranged from below detectable limit (<0.01) to 0.36 mg/kg. Acephate, chlorpyrifos, ethion, carbaryl and cypermethrin were detected in only one sample, while co-occurrence occurred twice for fenitrothion and parathion. Apart from chlorpyrifos in tomato and cypermethrin in brinjal, all pesticide residues exceeded the maximum residue limit (MRL). Hazard risk index (HRI) for ethion (10.12) and carbaryl (1.09) was found in lady's finger and tomato, respectively. Rest of the pesticide residues were classified as not a health risk. A continuous monitoring and strict regulation should be enforced regarding control of pesticide residues in vegetables and other food commodities.

Quantitative structure activity relationship and risk analysis of some pesticides in the goat milk

The detection and quantification of different pesticides in the goat milk samples collected from different localities of Faisalabad, Pakistan was performed by HPLC using solid phase microextraction. The analysis showed that about 50% milk samples were contaminated with pesticides. The mean±SEM levels (ppm) of cyhalothrin, endosulfan, chlorpyrifos and cypermethrin were 0.34±0.007, 0.063±0.002, 0.034±0.002 and 0.092±0.002, respectively; whereas, methyl parathion was not detected in any of the analyzed samples. Quantitative structure activity relationship (QSAR) models were suggested to predict the residues of unknown pesticides in the goat milk using their known physicochemical characteristics including molecular weight (MW), melting point (MP), and log octanol to water partition coefficient (Ko/w) in relation to the characteristics such as pH, % fat, specific gravity and refractive index of goat milk. The analysis revealed good correlation coefficient (R2 = 0.985) for goat QSAR model. The coefficients for Ko/w and refractive index for the studied pesticides were higher in goat milk. This suggests that these are better determinants for pesticide residue prediction in the milk of these animals. Based upon the determined pesticide residues and their provisional tolerable daily intakes, risk analysis was also conducted which showed that daily intake levels of pesticide residues including cyhalothrin, chlorpyrifos and cypermethrin in present study are 2.68, 5.19 and 2.71 times higher, respectively in the goat milk. This intake of pesticide contaminated milk might pose health hazards to humans in this locality.

Organophosphorus and carbamates residues in milk and feedstuff supplied to dairy cattle

Considering acute and chronic toxicity effects on human and animal health caused by pesticide residues in food, this study aimed to analyze organophosphorate (OP) and carbamate (CB) in feedstuff and water destined for dairy cattle, as well as in the milk produced by these animals, through gas chromatography (GC). In the Agreste region of Pernambuco, Brazil, 30 raw milk samples and all components of the animals' diet were collected from several farms. Out of the 30 milk of milk analyzed, six (20%) were contaminated with OP, five (16.7%) with CB, and one sample with both pesticides. From 48 analyzed feed samples, 15 (31.25%) were contaminated with residues of OP, six (12.50%) with CB, and one sample was contaminated with both pesticides. Out of 16 water samples analyzed, six (37.50%) were contaminated with OP residues, but non with CB. In four dairy farms the pesticides detected in milk were compatible with the active principles found in water and/or foodstuff, suggesting them to be the source of contamination.

Pesticides residues in milks and feedstuff of farm animals drawn from Greece

The objective of this study was to investigate if milk from dairy sheep and goats, fed mainly with supplementary feed during the winter months, was contaminated with pesticides residues. Tauwo hundred milk samples from sheep and goats were collected from 10 farms of each animals. The sheep and goats farms were selected from those which represent common conventional production and feeding systems in Greece. Milk and feed samples (alfalfa hay, wheat straw, shrubs, pasture and concentrates) were taken from each farm to analyze for pesticides residues. The results showed that the summation operatorendosulfan was the main pesticide residue which was detected in all the concentrates samples at a mean concentration of 5.36 mgkg(-1), which is much higher from the maximum residue level (MRL). In addition, the summation operatorendosulfan was also detected in all the alfalfa hay samples but at a mean concentration of 0.10 mgkg(-1) which is lower than the MRL. The mean concentrations of endosulfan alpha and beta were 2.82 and 2.39 mgkg(-1) in the concentrates samples and 0.08 and 0.02 mgkg(-1) respectively in alfalfa hay samples. In the wheat straw, shrubs and pasture samples no pesticides residues were detected. No pesticide residues were also detected in milk samples of sheep and goats. Thus, this milk from the farms sampled presents no human health risks as far as the contaminants analyzed concerned.

A regenerable immunochip for the rapid determination of 13 different antibiotics in raw milk

Access to high-quality and safe food is a basic need in our community and, consequently, the European Union has defined maximum residue levels (MRLs) for a number of antibacterial compounds. However, despite the obvious demand for quantitative multi-residue detection methods that can be carried out on a routine basis, there is currently a lack in the development of such systems. In particular, an automated multianalyte detection instrument is needed that is capable of quantifying several antibiotics simultaneously within minutes. The newly developed hapten microarrays are designed for the parallel analysis of 13 different antibiotics in milk within six minutes by applying an indirect competitive chemiluminescence microarray immunoassay (CL-MIA). To allow multiple analyses, a regenerable microarray chip was developed based on epoxy-activated PEG chip surfaces, onto which microspotted antibiotic derivatives like sulfonamides, beta-lactams, aminoglycosides, fluorquinolones and polyketides are coupled directly without further use of linking agents. Using the chip reader platform MCR 3, this antigen solid phase is stable for at least 50 consecutive analyses.