Tools of Biological Warfare

Foodborne zoonotic agents and their food bioterrorism potential: Areview

Bioterrorism is anact of deliberate release and dissemination of biological agents such as pathogenicmicroorganisms or their products in a naturally occurring or human-modifiedform. Bioterrorist attacks are aimed at causing death, disease or otherbiological malfunction in humans, animals or plants, in order to achievecertain political goals through creating fear and panic among the populationand influencing government’s behaviour. Historical data showed that zoonoticpathogens have been most commonly used as agentsfor bioterrorism. Applied through the food production systems or directly toprocessed foods asbiologicalweapons, zoonotic pathogens canhavefast anddevastating effects on humanhealth with enormous economic andsocial impact. Despite the development of different countermeasuresand the application of hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP)systems in the food industry, the bioterrorists’ attacks as intentional actscannot be predicted, but could be avoided by strengthening food control measures.

Detecting Biothreat Agents: From Current Diagnostics to Developing Sensor Technologies

Although a fundamental understanding of the pathogenicity of most biothreat agents has been elucidated and available treatments have increased substantially over the past decades, they still represent a significant public health threat in this age of (bio)terrorism, indiscriminate warfare, pollution, climate change, unchecked population growth, and globalization. The key step to almost all prevention, protection, prophylaxis, post-exposure treatment, and mitigation of any bioagent is early detection. Here, we review available methods for detecting bioagents including pathogenic bacteria and viruses along with their toxins. An introduction placing this subject in the historical context of previous naturally occurring outbreaks and efforts to weaponize selected agents is first provided along with definitions and relevant considerations. An overview of the detection technologies that find use in this endeavor along with how they provide data or transduce signal within a sensing configuration follows. Current "gold" standards for biothreat detection/diagnostics along with a listing of relevant FDA approved in vitro diagnostic devices is then discussed to provide an overview of the current state of the art. Given the 2014 outbreak of Ebola virus in Western Africa and the recent 2016 spread of Zika virus in the Americas, discussion of what constitutes a public health emergency and how new in vitro diagnostic devices are authorized for emergency use in the U.S. are also included. The majority of the Review is then subdivided around the sensing of bacterial, viral, and toxin biothreats with each including an overview of the major agents in that class, a detailed cross-section of different sensing methods in development based on assay format or analytical technique, and some discussion of related microfluidic lab-on-a-chip/point-of-care devices. Finally, an outlook is given on how this field will develop from the perspective of the biosensing technology itself and the new emerging threats they may face.

Medical aspects of bio-terrorism

INTRODUCTION

Bioterrorism is a terrorist action involving the intentional release or dissemination of a biological warfare agent (BWA), which includes some bacteria, viruses, rickettsiae, fungi or biological toxins. BWA is a naturally occurring or human-modified form that may kill or incapacitate humans, animals or plants as an act of war or terrorism. BWA is a weapon of choice for mass destruction and terrorism, because of the incubation period, less effective amount than chemical warfare agents, easily distribution, odorless, colorless, difficult to detect, no need of specialized equipment for production and naturally distribution which can easily be obtained. BWA may be disseminating as an aerosol, spray, explosive device, and by food or water.

CLASSIFICATION

Based on the risk for human health, BWAs have been prioritized into three categories of A, B and C. Category A includes microorganisms or toxins that easily spread, leading to intoxication with high death rates such as Anthrax, Botulism, Plague, Smallpox, Tularemia and Viral hemorrhagic fevers. Category B has lower toxicity with wider range, including Staphylococcal Entrotoxin type B (SEB), Epsilon toxin of Clostridium perfringens, Ricin, Saxotoxins, Abrin and Trichothecene mycotoxins. The C category includes emerging pathogens that could also be engineered for mass spread such as Hanta viruses, multidrug-resistant tuberculosis, Nipah virus, the tick-borne encephalitis viruses, hemorrhagic fever viruses and yellow fever. CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS OF BIOTOXINS IN HUMAN: Clinical features and severity of intoxication depend on the agent and exposed dose, route of entry, individual variation and environmental factors. Onset of symptoms varies from 2-24 h in Ricin to 24-96 h in Botulism. Clinical manifestations also vary from irritation of the eyes, skin and mucus membranes in T2 toxin to an acute flaccid paralysis of bilateral cranial nerve impairment of descending manner in botulism. Most of the pyrogenic toxins such as SEB produce the same signs and symptoms as toxic shock syndrome including a rapid drop in blood pressure, elevated temperature, and multiple organ failure.

MANAGEMENT

There is no specific antidote or effective treatment for most of the biotoxins. The clinical management is thus more supportive and symptomatic. Fortunately vaccines are now available for most of BWA. Therefore, immunization of personnel at risk of exposure is recommended.

CONCLUSION

Biotoxins are very wide and bioterrorism is a heath and security threat that may induce national and international problems. Therefore, the security authorities, health professional and even public should be aware of bioterrorism.