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Chatzisideri T, Leonidis G, Karampelas T, Skavatsou E, Velentza-Almpani A, Bianchini F, Tamvakopoulos C, Sarli V. Integrin-Mediated Targeted Cancer Therapy Using c(RGDyK)-Based Conjugates of Gemcitabine. J Med Chem 2021; 65:271-284. [PMID: 34967607 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c01468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
c(RGDyK)-based conjugates of gemcitabine (GEM) with the carbonate and carbamate linkages in the 6-OH group of GEM were synthesized for the targeted delivery of GEM to integrin αvβ3, overexpressing cancer cells to increase the stability as well as the tumor delivery of GEM and minimize common side effects associated with GEM treatment. Competitive cell uptake experiments demonstrated that conjugate TC113 could be internalized by A549 cells through integrin αvβ3. Among the synthesized conjugates, TC113 bearing the carbamate linker was stable in human plasma and was further assessed in an in vivo pharmacokinetic study. TC113 appeared to be relatively stable, releasing GEM slowly into blood, while it showed potent antiproliferative properties against WM266.4 and A549 cells. The encouraging data presented in this study with respect to TC113 provide a promising keystone for further investigation of this GEM conjugate with potential future clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theodora Chatzisideri
- Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, University Campus, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - George Leonidis
- Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, University Campus, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Theodoros Karampelas
- Center of Clinical Research, Experimental Surgery and Translational Research, Division of Pharmacology-Pharmacotechnology, Biomedical Research Foundation, Academy of Athens, Soranou Ephessiou Street 4, Athens GR-11527, Greece
| | - Eleni Skavatsou
- Center of Clinical Research, Experimental Surgery and Translational Research, Division of Pharmacology-Pharmacotechnology, Biomedical Research Foundation, Academy of Athens, Soranou Ephessiou Street 4, Athens GR-11527, Greece
| | - Angeliki Velentza-Almpani
- Center of Clinical Research, Experimental Surgery and Translational Research, Division of Pharmacology-Pharmacotechnology, Biomedical Research Foundation, Academy of Athens, Soranou Ephessiou Street 4, Athens GR-11527, Greece
| | - Francesca Bianchini
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Biomedical Sciences, University of Florence, V.le GB Morgagni 50, 50134 Firenze, Italy
| | - Constantin Tamvakopoulos
- Center of Clinical Research, Experimental Surgery and Translational Research, Division of Pharmacology-Pharmacotechnology, Biomedical Research Foundation, Academy of Athens, Soranou Ephessiou Street 4, Athens GR-11527, Greece
| | - Vasiliki Sarli
- Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, University Campus, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
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Zhai T, Zhong W, Gao Y, Zhou H, Zhou Z, Liu X, Yang S, Yang H. Tumor Microenvironment-Activated Nanoparticles Loaded with an Iron-Carbonyl Complex for Chemodynamic Immunotherapy of Lung Metastasis of Melanoma In Vivo. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:39100-39111. [PMID: 34382406 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c11485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
In this work, a nanoplatform (FeCORM NPs) loaded with an iron-carbonyl complex was constructed. By exploiting chemodynamic therapy (CDT) and immunogenic cell death (ICD)-induced immunotherapy (IMT), the nanoparticles exhibited excellent efficacy against lung metastasis of melanoma in vivo. The iron-carbonyl compound of the nanomaterials could be initiated by both glutathione (GSH) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to release CO and generate ferrous iron through ligand exchange and oxidative destruction pathways. The released CO caused mitochondria damage, whereas the generated ferrous iron led to oxidative stress via the Fenton reaction. On the other hand, the nanomaterials induced ICD-based IMT, which worked jointly with CDT to exhibit excellent effects against lung metastasis of melanoma through a mouse model. This work demonstrated how a nanoplatform, simple and stable but showing excellent efficacy against tumors, could be built using simple building blocks via a self-assembling approach. Importantly, the system took advantage of relatively high levels of GSH and H2O2 in tumors to initiate the therapeutic effects, which rendered the nanoplatform with a capability to differentiate normal cells from tumor cells. In principle, the system has great potential for future clinical applications, not only in the treatment of lung metastasis of melanoma but also in suppressing other types of tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianli Zhai
- College of Chemistry and Materials Science, International Joint Laboratory on Resource Chemistry of Ministry Education, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai 200234, P. R. China
| | - Wei Zhong
- College of Biological, Chemical Sciences and Engineering, Jiaxing University, Jiaxing 314001, P. R. China
| | - Yucong Gao
- College of Chemistry and Materials Science, International Joint Laboratory on Resource Chemistry of Ministry Education, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai 200234, P. R. China
| | - Han Zhou
- College of Chemistry and Materials Science, International Joint Laboratory on Resource Chemistry of Ministry Education, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai 200234, P. R. China
| | - Zhiguo Zhou
- College of Chemistry and Materials Science, International Joint Laboratory on Resource Chemistry of Ministry Education, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai 200234, P. R. China
| | - Xiaoming Liu
- College of Biological, Chemical Sciences and Engineering, Jiaxing University, Jiaxing 314001, P. R. China
| | - Shiping Yang
- College of Chemistry and Materials Science, International Joint Laboratory on Resource Chemistry of Ministry Education, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai 200234, P. R. China
| | - Hong Yang
- College of Chemistry and Materials Science, International Joint Laboratory on Resource Chemistry of Ministry Education, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai 200234, P. R. China
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Karamanou K, Franchi M, Proult I, Rivet R, Vynios D, Brézillon S. Lumican Inhibits In Vivo Melanoma Metastasis by Altering Matrix-Effectors and Invadopodia Markers. Cells 2021; 10:841. [PMID: 33917849 PMCID: PMC8068222 DOI: 10.3390/cells10040841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Revised: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/03/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
It was reported that lumican inhibits the activity of metalloproteinase MMP-14 and melanoma cell migration in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, Snail triggers epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and the metastatic potential of cancer cells. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine the effect of lumican on Mock and Snail overexpressing melanoma B16F1 cells in vivo. Lung metastasis was analyzed after intravenous injections of Mock-B16F1 and Snail-B16F1 cells in Lum+/+ and Lum-/- mice. At day 14, mice were sacrificed, and lungs were collected. The number of lung metastatic nodules was significantly higher in mice injected with Snail-B16F1 cells as compared to mice injected with Mock-B16F1 cells confirming the pro-metastatic effect of Snail. This effect was stronger in Lum-/- mice as compared to Lum+/+, suggesting that endogenous lumican of wild-type mice significantly inhibits metastasis to lungs. Scanning electron and confocal microscopy investigations demonstrated that lumican inhibits the development of elongated cancer cell phenotypes which are known to develop invadopodia releasing MMPs. Moreover, lumican was shown to affect the expression of cyclin D1, cortactin, vinculin, hyaluronan synthase 2, heparanase, MMP-14 and the phosphorylation of FAK, AKT, p130 Cas and GSK3α/β. Altogether, these data demonstrated that lumican significantly inhibits lung metastasis in vivo, as well as cell invasion in vitro, suggesting that a lumican-based strategy targeting Snail-induced metastasis could be useful for melanoma treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstantina Karamanou
- CNRS UMR 7369, Matrice Extracellulaire et Dynamique Cellulaire, 51100 Reims, France; (K.K.); (I.P.); (R.R.)
- Laboratoire de Biochimie Médicale et Biologie Moléculaire, Université de Reims Champagne Ardenne, 51095 Reims, France
- Biochemistry, Biochemical Analysis & Matrix Pathobiology Research Group, Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Patras, 26501 Patras, Greece;
| | - Marco Franchi
- Department for Life Quality Studies, University of Bologna, 47922 Rimini, Italy;
| | - Isabelle Proult
- CNRS UMR 7369, Matrice Extracellulaire et Dynamique Cellulaire, 51100 Reims, France; (K.K.); (I.P.); (R.R.)
- Laboratoire de Biochimie Médicale et Biologie Moléculaire, Université de Reims Champagne Ardenne, 51095 Reims, France
| | - Romain Rivet
- CNRS UMR 7369, Matrice Extracellulaire et Dynamique Cellulaire, 51100 Reims, France; (K.K.); (I.P.); (R.R.)
- Laboratoire de Biochimie Médicale et Biologie Moléculaire, Université de Reims Champagne Ardenne, 51095 Reims, France
| | - Demitrios Vynios
- Biochemistry, Biochemical Analysis & Matrix Pathobiology Research Group, Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Patras, 26501 Patras, Greece;
| | - Stéphane Brézillon
- CNRS UMR 7369, Matrice Extracellulaire et Dynamique Cellulaire, 51100 Reims, France; (K.K.); (I.P.); (R.R.)
- Laboratoire de Biochimie Médicale et Biologie Moléculaire, Université de Reims Champagne Ardenne, 51095 Reims, France
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Apelin promotes blood and lymph vessel formation and the growth of melanoma lung metastasis. Sci Rep 2021; 11:5798. [PMID: 33707612 PMCID: PMC7952702 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-85162-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2020] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Apelin, a ligand of the APJ receptor, is overexpressed in several human cancers and plays an important role in tumor angiogenesis and growth in various experimental systems. We investigated the role of apelin signaling in the malignant behavior of cutaneous melanoma. Murine B16 and human A375 melanoma cell lines were stably transfected with apelin encoding or control vectors. Apelin overexpression significantly increased melanoma cell migration and invasion in vitro, but it had no impact on its proliferation. In our in vivo experiments, apelin significantly increased the number and size of lung metastases of murine melanoma cells. Melanoma cell proliferation rates and lymph and blood microvessel densities were significantly higher in the apelin-overexpressing pulmonary metastases. APJ inhibition by the competitive APJ antagonist MM54 significantly attenuated the in vivo pro-tumorigenic effects of apelin. Additionally, we detected significantly elevated circulating apelin and VEGF levels in patients with melanoma compared to healthy controls. Our results show that apelin promotes blood and lymphatic vascularization and the growth of pulmonary metastases of skin melanoma. Further studies are warranted to validate apelin signaling as a new potential therapeutic target in this malignancy.
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Ogata D, Roszik J, Oba J, Kim SH, Bassett RL, Haydu LE, Tanese K, Grimm EA, Ekmekcioglu S. The Expression of CD74-Regulated Inflammatory Markers in Stage IV Melanoma: Risk of CNS Metastasis and Patient Survival. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12123754. [PMID: 33327409 PMCID: PMC7764866 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12123754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Revised: 12/07/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Although many immunotherapies produce positive initial clinical responses, most advanced cancer patients recur so that there is an urgent need to identify and counteract both the intrinsic resistance as well as acquired mechanisms. During our studies on the mechanisms of resistance, we have identified a set of related protein markers, which we now employ to generate a useful signature of, associated with microenvironmental oxidative stress. Our study examines inflammatory marker expression in stage IV melanoma that are associated with survival outcome and risk of developing central nervous system (CNS) metastasis. Our data here presents CD74 as a prognostic tumor marker associated with good survival in stage IV melanoma. Additionally, the tumor cell nitrotyrosine (NT) expression predicts a greater risk of developing CNS metastasis in those patients. Our understanding of complex cancer cell and their response in the chronic inflammation environment would help us develop better treatments for melanoma. Abstract Innate inflammatory features have been found in melanoma tumors from patients at all stages, and molecular analysis has identified definitive inflammatory proteins expressed by tumors cells in patients who presents the worst prognosis. We have previously observed weakened outcomes in patients with constitutive expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) and improved outcomes with CD74 expression in stage III melanoma. In our current study, we tested our hypothesis on CD74-regulated inflammatory markers’ expression in stage IV melanoma tumors whether the signature is associated with survival outcome and/or risk of developing CNS metastasis. We retrospectively identified 315 patients with stage IV melanoma. In a tissue microarray (TMA), we examined the expression of cells with CD74, its receptor MIF, and downstream inflammatory markers iNOS, nitrotyrosine (NT), cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 and microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1 (mPGES1). We analyzed the association of those inflammatory markers with overall survival time (OS) and time to CNS metastasis using Kaplan–Meier survival analyses. Our data validates CD74 as a useful prognostic tumor cell protein marker associated with favorable OS as in stage III melanomas, while the tumor NT expression strongly predicts an increased risk of developing CNS metastasis (p = 0.0008) in those patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dai Ogata
- Department of Melanoma Medical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA; (D.O.); (J.R.); (J.O.); (S.-H.K.); (E.A.G.)
- Department of Dermatologic Oncology, National Cancer Center Hospital, Tokyo 104-0045, Japan
| | - Jason Roszik
- Department of Melanoma Medical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA; (D.O.); (J.R.); (J.O.); (S.-H.K.); (E.A.G.)
- Department of Genomic Medicine, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Junna Oba
- Department of Melanoma Medical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA; (D.O.); (J.R.); (J.O.); (S.-H.K.); (E.A.G.)
- Genomics Unit, Keio Cancer Center, School of Medicine, Keio University, Tokyo 106-8582, Japan
| | - Sun-Hee Kim
- Department of Melanoma Medical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA; (D.O.); (J.R.); (J.O.); (S.-H.K.); (E.A.G.)
| | - Roland L. Bassett
- Department of Biostatistics, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA;
| | - Lauren E. Haydu
- Department of Surgical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA;
| | - Keiji Tanese
- Department of Dermatology, Keio University, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan;
| | - Elizabeth A. Grimm
- Department of Melanoma Medical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA; (D.O.); (J.R.); (J.O.); (S.-H.K.); (E.A.G.)
| | - Suhendan Ekmekcioglu
- Department of Melanoma Medical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA; (D.O.); (J.R.); (J.O.); (S.-H.K.); (E.A.G.)
- Correspondence:
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Zhuyan J, Chen M, Zhu T, Bao X, Zhen T, Xing K, Wang Q, Zhu S. Critical steps to tumor metastasis: alterations of tumor microenvironment and extracellular matrix in the formation of pre-metastatic and metastatic niche. Cell Biosci 2020; 10:89. [PMID: 32742634 PMCID: PMC7388444 DOI: 10.1186/s13578-020-00453-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2019] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
For decades, cancer metastasis has been a heated topic for its high mortality. Previous research has shown that pre-metastatic niche and metastatic niche are the 2 crucial steps in cancer metastasis, assisting cancerous cells' infiltration, survival, and colonization at target sites. More recent studies have unraveled details about the specific mechanisms related to the modification of pro-invasion environments. Here, we will review literatures on extracellular matrix (ECM) alterations, general cancer metastasis, organ specificity, pre-metastatic niche, metastatic niche, colony formation and impact on the course of metastasis. Respectively, the metastatic mechanisms like effect of hypoxia or inflammation on pre-metastatic niche construction, as well as the interaction between cancer cells and local milieu will be discussed. Based on the evidences of metastatic niches, we revisit and discussed the "Seed and Soil" hypothesis by Paget. This review will seek to provide insight into the mechanism of metastatic organ specificity which pre-metastatic niche and metastatic niche might suggest from an evolutionary aspect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianan Zhuyan
- School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, 2005 Songhu Road, Shanghai, 200438 China
- Shanghai Starriver Bilingual School, Shanghai, 201100 China
| | - Mingyu Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Shanghai, 200040 China
| | - Tianhao Zhu
- Shanghai Starriver Bilingual School, Shanghai, 201100 China
| | - Xunxia Bao
- School of Medical Instrument and Food Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200093 China
| | - Timing Zhen
- School of Medical Instrument and Food Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200093 China
| | - Kaichen Xing
- School of Medical Instrument and Food Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200093 China
| | - Qiubo Wang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Wuxi 9th Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, No.999 Liangxi Road, Wuxi, China
| | - Sibo Zhu
- School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, 2005 Songhu Road, Shanghai, 200438 China
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Martinez Pena GN, Jiang C. Endobronchial, laryngeal and mediastinal melanoma: a rare constellation of metastatic disease. BMJ Case Rep 2019; 12:e228957. [PMID: 31068348 PMCID: PMC6506047 DOI: 10.1136/bcr-2018-228957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
A 45-year-old man presents with acute respiratory failure. Imaging revealed a left mainstem endobronchial mass with subcarinal lymphadenopathy, but no other evidence of a primary tumour. An incidental laryngeal nodule was found during bronchoscopy. Biopsies of this lesion by nasopharyngoscopy and subcarinal lymph nodes via mediastinoscopy were performed. Histopathological and immunohistochemical examination showed evidence of melanoma in both samples. Mutational analysis identified the presence of a BRAFV600E mutation. The patient underwent bronchoscopic ablation of the left mainstem endobronchial tumour with laser therapy followed by initiation of encorafenib and binimetinib combination therapy. The patient remains alive at 4 months after initial presentation of disease. This case adds to the body of literature highlighting the clinical heterogeneity and challenges of the management of metastatic pulmonary melanoma. To the best of our knowledge, this simultaneous constellation of metastasis has not been described before.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Chuan Jiang
- Medicine – Pulmonary Medicine, Jamaica Hospital Medical Center, Jamaica, New York, USA
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Saraya T, Fujiwara M, Morita K, Watanabe T, Ogawa Y, Takizawa H, Light RW. Amelanotic Malignant Melanoma with Dense Pleural Thickening Mimicking Malignant Mesothelioma. Intern Med 2019; 58:969-972. [PMID: 30449771 PMCID: PMC6478975 DOI: 10.2169/internalmedicine.0867-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
A 51-year-old man was diagnosed with stage IIC nodular malignant melanoma (T4bN0M0) of the right upper arm. The tumor was treatment-refractory, and left-sided pleural effusion emerged 1.5 years later. Aspiration of pleural fluid revealed abundant amelanotic, atypical cells that resembled epithelial malignant mesothelioma or lung adenocarcinoma cells; these cells were positive for melanoma-associated antigen recognized by T cells (MART-1)/Melan-A, HMB-45, and S-100 on immunocytochemistry. Thoracic computed tomography (CT) revealed marked diffuse pleural thickening in the left hemithorax that mimicked malignant mesothelioma; thus, the present report describes the unique cytological and radiological findings of this case.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takeshi Saraya
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Kyorin University School of Medicine, Japan
| | | | - Kikuko Morita
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Kyorin University School of Medicine, Japan
| | - Takayasu Watanabe
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Kyorin University School of Medicine, Japan
| | - Yukari Ogawa
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Kyorin University School of Medicine, Japan
| | - Hajime Takizawa
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Kyorin University School of Medicine, Japan
| | - Richard W Light
- Division of Allergy, Pulmonary, and Critical Care Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, USA
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Huang R, Rofstad EK. Integrins as therapeutic targets in the organ-specific metastasis of human malignant melanoma. J Exp Clin Cancer Res 2018; 37:92. [PMID: 29703238 PMCID: PMC5924434 DOI: 10.1186/s13046-018-0763-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2018] [Accepted: 04/16/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Integrins are a large family of adhesion molecules that mediate cell-cell and cell-extracellular matrix interactions. Among the 24 integrin isoforms, many have been found to be associated with tumor angiogenesis, tumor cell migration and proliferation, and metastasis. Integrins, especially αvβ3, αvβ5 and α5β1, participate in mediating tumor angiogenesis by interacting with the vascular endothelial growth factor and angiopoietin-Tie signaling pathways. Melanoma patients have a poor prognosis when the primary tumor has generated distant metastases, and the melanoma metastatic site is an independent predictor of the survival of these patients. Different integrins on the melanoma cell surface preferentially direct circulating melanoma cells to different organs and promote the development of metastases at specific organ sites. For instance, melanoma cells expressing integrin β3 tend to metastasize to the lungs, whereas those expressing integrin β1 preferentially generate lymph node metastases. Moreover, tumor cell-derived exosomes which contain different integrins may prepare a pre-metastatic niche in specific organs and promote organ-specific metastases. Because of the important role that integrins play in tumor angiogenesis and metastasis, they have become promising targets for the treatment of advanced cancer. In this paper, we review the integrin isoforms responsible for angiogenesis and organ-specific metastasis in malignant melanoma and the inhibitors that have been considered for the future treatment of metastatic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruixia Huang
- Department of Radiation Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Ullernchausseen 70, 0379, Oslo, Norway.
| | - Einar K Rofstad
- Department of Radiation Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Ullernchausseen 70, 0379, Oslo, Norway
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