Anatomy of the nipple and breast ducts

Characterization of breast changes in the early gestational period on automated breast ultrasound

PURPOSE

This study was conducted to determine the characteristics of milk duct development in early pregnancy on ultrasound images.

METHODS

Automated breast ultrasound (ABUS) images used for breast cancer screening in 332 pregnant women were evaluated retrospectively to determine when and how ductal development becomes evident on ultrasonography. The diagnostic criteria used for mammary gland changes during the gestational period were extension of the ducts to the margins of the breast where little or no echogenic fibroglandular tissue is seen on sonograms and/or the appearance of ductal structures running along the ascending Cooper's ligament tapering off or ending in a blind end at the superficial layer of the superficial fascia. The correlations between gestational stage and the prevalence of these criteria were verified by Spearman's rank correlation coefficient (ρ). Assessments were performed by a single radiologist with experience reading ABUS images.

RESULTS

With a few exceptions, the prevalence of the above findings increased sharply beginning at 10 weeks, and then increased with progression of gestation, reaching a plateau after 20 weeks (ρ = 0.766, P < 0.00001).

CONCLUSION

The findings in this study suggested that development of the milk ducts in early pregnancy can be observed using ABUS. These findings will be useful to gain a better understanding of breast ultrasound imaging characteristics during pregnancy.

Nuclear Deformability of Breast Cells Analyzed from Patients with Malignant and Benign Breast Diseases

Breast cancer is a heterogeneous and dynamic disease, in which cancer cells are highly responsive to alterations in the microenvironment. Today, conventional methods of detecting cancer give a rather static image of the condition of the disease, so dynamic properties such as invasiveness and metastasis are difficult to capture. In this study, conventional molecular-level evaluations of the patients with breast adenocarcinoma were combined with in vitro methods on micropatterned poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) biomaterial surfaces that deform cells. A correlation between deformability of the nuclei and cancer stemness, invasiveness, and metastasis was sought. Clinical patient samples were from regions of the breast with different proximities to the tumor. Responses at the single-cell level toward the micropatterned surfaces were studied using CD44/24, epithelial cell adhesion marker (EpCAM), MUC1, and PCK. Results showed that molecular markers and shape descriptors can discriminate the cells from different proximities to the tumor center and from different patients. The cells with the most metastatic and invasive properties showed both the highest deformability and the highest level of metastatic markers. In conclusion, by using a combination of molecular markers together with nuclear deformation, it is possible to improve detection and separation of subpopulations in heterogenous breast cancer specimens at the single-cell level.

The positive effects and mechanisms of honey against breast cancer

BACKGROUND

Breast cancer is a malignancy that occurs in cells in the breast tissue where cells in the breast divide and grow out of control, invade surrounding tissues, or spread (metastasize) to distant areas of the body.

METHOD

This review was systematically carried out through PubMed, Scopus, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar websites in English and Indonesian using the keyword content of the article, obtaining 21 selected articles. This review demonstrates honey's promising mechanism of combined synergistic effect for breast cancer management.

CONCLUSION

Antioxidants in honey intercept free radicals of phenolic compounds which are the main factors responsible for the antioxidant activity of honey. The antimicrobial activity in most honey is due to the enzymatic production of hydrogen peroxide, and its anti-cancer properties are discussed in this section.

Nanotechnological Approaches for the Treatment of Triple-Negative Breast Cancer: A Comprehensive Review

Breast cancer is the most prevalent cancer in women around the world, having a sudden spread nowadays because of the poor sedentary lifestyle of people. Comprising several subtypes, one of the most dangerous and aggressive ones is triple-negative breast cancer or TNBC. Even though conventional surgical approaches like single and double mastectomy and preventive chemotherapeutic approaches are available, they are not selective to cancer cells and are only for symptomatic treatment. A new branch called nanotechnology has emerged in the last few decades that offers various novel characteristics, such as size in nanometric scale, enhanced adherence to multiple targeting moieties, active and passive targeting, controlled release, and site-specific targeting. Among various nanotherapeutic approaches like dendrimers, lipid-structured nanocarriers, carbon nanotubes, etc., nanoparticle targeted therapeutics can be termed the best among all for their specific cytotoxicity to cancer cells and increased bioavailability to a target site. This review focuses on the types and molecular pathways involving TNBC, existing treatment strategies, various nanotechnological approaches like exosomes, carbon nanotubes, dendrimers, lipid, and carbon-based nanocarriers, and especially various nanoparticles (NPs) like polymeric, photodynamic, peptide conjugated, antibody-conjugated, metallic, inorganic, natural product capped, and CRISPR based nanoparticles already approved for treatment or are under clinical and pre-clinical trials for TNBC.

Immunomodulatory Properties of Human Breast Milk: MicroRNA Contents and Potential Epigenetic Effects

Infants who are exclusively breastfed in the first six months of age receive adequate nutrients, achieving optimal immune protection and growth. In addition to the known nutritional components of human breast milk (HBM), i.e., water, carbohydrates, fats and proteins, it is also a rich source of microRNAs, which impact epigenetic mechanisms. This comprehensive work presents an up-to-date overview of the immunomodulatory constituents of HBM, highlighting its content of circulating microRNAs. The epigenetic effects of HBM are discussed, especially those regulated by miRNAs. HBM contains more than 1400 microRNAs. The majority of these microRNAs originate from the lactating gland and are based on the remodeling of cells in the gland during breastfeeding. These miRNAs can affect epigenetic patterns by several mechanisms, including DNA methylation, histone modifications and RNA regulation, which could ultimately result in alterations in gene expressions. Therefore, the unique microRNA profile of HBM, including exosomal microRNAs, is implicated in the regulation of the genes responsible for a variety of immunological and physiological functions, such as FTO, INS, IGF1, NRF2, GLUT1 and FOXP3 genes. Hence, studying the HBM miRNA composition is important for improving the nutritional approaches for pregnancy and infant's early life and preventing diseases that could occur in the future. Interestingly, the composition of miRNAs in HBM is affected by multiple factors, including diet, environmental and genetic factors.

Potential Role of CCN Proteins in Breast Cancer: Therapeutic Advances and Perspectives

CCNs are a specific type of matricellular protein, which are essential signaling molecules, and play multiple roles in multicellular eukaryotes. This family of proteins consists of six separate members, which exist only in vertebrates. The architecture of CCN proteins is multi-modular comprising four distinct modules. CCN Proteins achieve their primary functional activities by binding with several integrin7 receptors. The CCN family has been linked to cell adhesion, chemotaxis and migration, mitogenesis, cell survival, angiogenesis, differentiation, tumorigenesis, chondrogenesis, and wound healing, among other biological interactions. Breast cancer is the most commonly diagnosed cancer worldwide and CCN regulated breast cancer stands at the top. A favorable or unfavorable association between various CCNs has been reported in patients with breast carcinomas. The pro-tumorigenic CCN1, CCN2, CCN3, and CCN4 may lead to human breast cancer, although the anti-tumorigenic actions of CCN5 and CCN6 are also present. Several studies have been conducted on CCN proteins and cancer in recent years. CCN1 and CCN3 have been shown to exhibit a dual nature of tumor inhibition and tumor suppression to some extent in quiet recent time. Pharmacological advances in treating breast cancer by targeting CCN proteins are also reported. In our study, we intend to provide an overview of these research works while keeping breast cancer in focus. This information may facilitate early diagnosis, early prognosis and the development of new therapeutic strategies.

The Assessment of Nipple Areola Complex Sensation with Semmes-Weinstein Monofilaments-Normative Values and Its Covariates

Objective: To establish normative data for nipple-areola complex (NAC) sensibility examined with Semmes-Weinstein monofilament test (SWMT) and two-point discrimination (TPD) in women with varying breast sizes, including women with gigantomastia. We also aimed to identify clinical variables influencing NAC sensation. Methods: A total of 320 breasts in 160 Caucasian women (mean age 33.6 years, SD 11 years) were examined (including 50 hypertrophic breasts). NACs sensation was examined using Semmes-Weinstein monofilaments (SWM) and the Weber Two-Point Discrimination Test. Results: The nipple appeared to be the most sensitive part of NAC. In normal-sized breasts, sensation thresholds (SWM) correlated with: age, BMI, history of births, breast size and ptosis (for all locations), breastfeeding history (for nipple and upper areola) and areola diameter (for all locations apart from the nipple). Regression analysis showed that age, cup size and suprasternal notch-to-nipple distance are risk factors for diminished NAC sensation. Sensation thresholds in all NAC locations of hypertrophic breasts were significantly higher compared to normal-sized breasts, while TPD tests did not differ between the groups. Conclusions: We provided normative values of NAC sensation (tactile threshold and TPD) for different NAC areas. Our investigation indicated that SWM are useful diagnostic tools when the following factors are considered while examining NAC sensation: location (nipple vs. areola), age, breast size, suprasternal notch-to-nipple distance, history of births and breastfeeding. Hypertrophic breasts presented significantly higher sensation thresholds for all NAC locations. The report may serve as a reference data for further investigations regarding NAC sensation after different breast surgeries.

Most recent strategies targeting estrogen receptor alpha for the treatment of breast cancer

Breast cancer is the most prominent, frequently diagnosed and leading cause of death among women. Estrogen is an agonist of estrogen receptor alpha (ER-α), expressed in mammary glands and is responsible for initiating many signalling pathways that lead to differentiation and development of breast tissue. Any mutations in these signalling pathways result in irregular growth of mammary tissue, leading to the development of tumour or cancer. All these observations attract the attention of researchers to antagonize ER-α receptor either by developing selective estrogen receptor modulators or by selective estrogen receptor degraders. Therefore, this article provides a brief overview of various factors that are responsible for provoking breast cancer in women and design strategies recently used by the various research groups across the world for antagonizing or demodulating ER-α.

Air in the Breast: A Rare Cause of Iatrogenic Pneumomastia

Air in the breast tissue (pneumomastia) is a rare finding, more so without any history of procedures on the breast. We report the case of an 80-year-old lady who was found to have foci of gas in her right breast on a CT scan. On exclusion of other possible causes for the same, it was concluded that the air in the breast tissue was secondary to a peripheral intravenous line placement. To our knowledge, this is the first reported case of pneumomastia as a complication of peripheral intravenous line placement.

Is the Way to Fight Cancer Paved with Gold? Metal-Based Carbene Complexes with Multiple and Fascinating Biological Features

Herein, we report the synthesis and the multiple anti-tumor properties of new gold and silver carbene complexes. The chemical modifications, grounded on our previous studies, led us to identify a good lead complex, gold-based, whose biological features are very exciting and promising in the anti-cancer research and could be further developed. Indeed, the bis-[4,5-dichloro-(N-methyl-N’(2-hydroxy-2-phenyl)ethyl-imidazole-2-ylidene)gold(I)]⁺[dichloro-gold]⁻ (AuL7) complex possesses the ability to interfere with at least three important and different intracellular targets, namely the human topoisomerases I and II and tubulin, which are able to modulate metabolic processes not directly correlated each other. We proved that the modifications of the ligands structure in AuL7, with respect to another already published complex, i.e., bis-[4,5-dichloro-(N-methyl-N’(cyclopentane-2ol)-imidazole-2-ylidine)gold(I)]⁺[dichloro-gold]⁻ (AuL4), produce a different behavior toward tubulin-polymerization process, since AuL7 is a tubulin-polymerization inhibitor and AuL4 a stabilizer, with the final same result of hampering the tumor growth. Taken together, our outcomes designate AuL7 as a promising compound for the development of multi-targeted anti-cancer therapies.

Thermal physiology of the lactating nipple influences the removal of human milk

The nipple has a critical role in successful breastfeeding. Nipple trauma or pain may negatively impact breastfeeding duration which has significant public health implications. The aim of this study was to examine changes in nipple temperature during breastfeeding and pumping within participants. Thirty lactating women participated in two pumping (electric breast pump) and one breastfeeding session. Nipple temperature of both breasts was monitored for two minutes before and after each session with the non-pumped/non-suckled nipple temperature recorded throughout each session. The mean increase in nipple temperature after milk removal by the infant was 1.0 ± 1.6 °C (range −3.2–3.2) and after expression was 1.8 ± 1.4 °C (range −0.9–6.1). Nipple temperature pre expression was significantly lower than post expression (Pre 32.6 ± 1.6, Post 34.3 ± 1.3, p < 0.001) with no difference between the two pumping sessions. For every 1 °C rise in temperature an additional 10 mL of milk was removed on average. The breastfed nipple temperature was significantly lower pre feed than post feed (Pre 32.4 ± 1.6, Post 33.2 ± 1.2 p = 0.01) with a significant but smaller change in nipple temperaturecompared to pumping (Breastfeed 1.0 ± 1.6, Pumping 1.7 ± 1.4, p = 0.03). Nipple temperature increases during pumping and breastfeeding suggesting the breasts have a similar physiological response to different stimuli. Further, the increased temperature potentially plays a role in effective milk removal.

Cytokeratin Profile of Basal Cell Carcinomas According to the Degree of Sun Exposure and to the Anatomical Localization

Basal cell carcinoma (BCC) seems to originate from ultraviolet light-induced mutations involving the bulge or the outer sheath of the hair follicle cells. However, the etiopathogenic mechanisms involved in the development of these tumors in nonphotoexposed and in hairless areas remain unclear. The cytokeratin (CK) profile (including CK5/6, CK7, CK14, CK15, CK17, and CK19) from a series of different BCC subtypes developing in sun-exposed and non-sun-exposed areas, including hairless regions, was evaluated. The authors have observed that CK7 expression in BCC is associated with the anatomical localization of the tumor and its sun-exposition, but not with other factors such as histological subtype. The expression of this CK is higher in BCCs located in non-sun-exposed and nonhairy areas, such as the vulvar semimucosa and the nipple. Because CK7 is a marker of simple glandular epithelia, the authors suggest a glandular origin for BCCs located in hairless and nonphotoexposed areas.