A quality assessment of crude palm oil marketed in Bahia, Brazil

Techno-economics of coconut coir bioadsorbent utilization on free fatty acid level reduction in crude palm oil

The quality of crude palm oil (CPO) is generally determined by the levels of free fatty acids (FFA). This helps in balancing the level of acidity during transportation and storage processes. However, high FFA in CPO is not good for consumer health. One of the methods for adsorbing FFA is adsorption, which is the adhesion of atoms, ions, or molecules from a gas, liquid, or dissolved solid to a surface. Therefore, this study aims to analyze the effect of contact time (40, 80 and 120 min) and Coconut Coir (CC) bioadsorbent concentrations of 1, 2 and 3 (%, w/v) on the reduction of CPO FFA levels. This began with the activation of CC biochar synthesis by using NaOH and HCl, which produced CC-NaOH and CC-HCl bioadsorbents based on the product of NaOH. Furthermore, the adsorption process was carried out by mixing CPO with CC-NaOH and CC-HCl bioadsorbents in a three-necked flask. After this, the filtrate product was obtained and analyzed for its FFA levels. The results showed that the largest percentage reduction for the effect of bioadsorbent concentration was 3% (w/v) at a contact time of 120 min. It also indicated that this study enabled lower levels of FFA in CPO. Based on the detailed cost estimate, the production cost of the CC-NaOH bioadsorbent was USD 481,874, sold at USD 95/ton with annual sales and net profit (after tax) at USD 684,000 and USD 141,188, respectively. This profit after tax and rate of return on investment was found to be 20.68 and 39.49% of the entire estimation, respectively. It also had a payback period of 2.95 years and a break-even point at a capacity of 43.16%. In addition, the prepared adsorbent showed significant ability as an inexpensive, reproducible and environmentally friendly compound used in reducing the FFA levels of CPO.

Analysis of bentonite performance on the quality of refined crude palm oil's color, free fatty acid and carotene: the effect of bentonite concentration and contact time

The quality of crude palm oil (CPO) must be maintained since it plays an important role in fulfilling the domestic and global needs (food and non-food). The quality of CPO is determined by the color, Free Fatty Acid (FFA) and carotene. This study was aimed at examining the effect of bentonite concentration (1.5, 2.0, 2.5 and 3.0%) and contact time (15, 30, 45 and 60 min) on the quality of crude palm oil. The refining processes of CPO through degumming, bleaching and distillation were carried out before the analysis on color, FFA and carotene was done. The results showed that the effect of bentonite concentration (1.5, 2.0, 2.5 and 3.0%) experienced the highest percentage in reduction at 3.0% (color 88.7%, FFA 2.99% and carotene 56.37%). Meanwhile, the effect of contact time (15, 30, 45 and 60 min) experienced the highest percentage in reduction at 60 min (color 89.58%, FFA 2.38%, carotene 61.32%). The reduction in the CPO's color, FFA and carotene found in this study indicates that bentonite concentration and contact time are proven to be effective methods for CPO refinery based on the standard set by Malaysian Palm Oil Refiners Association. This study also showed that the removal efficiency and adsorption capacity of FFA and carotene were also affected by contact time and bentonite concentration.

Quantitative and qualitative assessment on the suitability of seed oil from water plant (Trichilia emetica) for soap making

Despite widespread and its local available as a naturalized hedge and shade plant, the potential of Trichilia emetica was not utilized in soap making by the majority of local community in various parts of Dodoma, Tanzania. This study aimed to assess the quantity (yields) and quality (Acid Values (AVs), %Free Fatty Acids (%FFAs) and Saponification Values (SVs) of seed oil from water plant (T. emetica), suitable for soap making application. Solvent extraction method was used during oil extraction, where by 50gm of preheated and powdered seed materials were immersed in 250 ml of n-hexane in 1:5 (w/v) to dissolve the oil contained in the seed cake. The oil was collected by vaporizing solvent out through Rotary evaporation at 60 °C. Also standard titration methods were used to obtain SVs, AVs and %FFAs of the extracted oil. Results showed that T. emetica seeds contained higher quantity of oil (48.4%-50.2%) than many reported commercial plant seed oils. Also, the study found higher AV (7.4 mgKOH/g-7.8 mgKOH/g), %FFA (3.7% to 3.9%) and SVs (189.5 mgKOH/g - 191.4 mgKOH/g) than the maximum acceptable limits of 0.50 mg KOH/g, 0.020% and 175 mgKOH/g - 187 mgKOH/g prescribed by ASTM standards (2002). The obtained results showed that, T. emetica seeds yielded high oil quantity with low qualities due to higher levels of acidity. But high SVs guarantees the possibility of using T. emetica seed oil in soap making. However, the oil requires purification in order to bring levels of acidity to acceptable standards and guarantee its normal use in soap making.

A real case study on the physicochemical changes in crude palm oil (

The objective of this study was to evaluate the physicochemical changes in crude palm oil during a real case of deep-frying of akara, cowpea-paste balls, fried and sold in the streets of Brazil. Discontinuous frying over five consecutive days, using 5-h frying a day, was performed according to traditional practices. The formation of polar compounds was evaluated by the IUPAC official method and by quick tests based on measures of physical properties, Testo 270 and Fri-check. In addition, 1H-NMR spectroscopy was applied to evaluate physicochemical changes. The results showed that after 15-h frying the total content of polar compounds (TPC) exceeded the limit of 25% established in most of the recommendations and regulations on heated oils. Such a level was reached quickly due to the high content of hydrolytic compounds present in the fresh oil and to the inappropriate use of blends of fresh and used oil in the oil replenishment. The two quick tests presented significantly lower values for TPC than the official method, probably due to the elevated hydrolysis of the fresh oil. In contrast, 1H-NMR results exhibited changes in the fatty acid composition which were similar to those provided by the common GC analysis. The use of crude palm oils of better initial quality and replenishment with fresh oil only are recommended to improve the quality of the oil absorbed by akara.

Geographical discrimination of palm oils (Elaeis guineensis) using quality characteristics and UV-visible spectroscopy

This preliminary study demonstrated the possibility of discriminating geographical origin of palm oils using conventional quality characteristics and UV-visible spectroscopy. A total of 60 samples, 20 from each region (North (N), South (S), and Central (C)) of Ondo State Nigeria, were analyzed for their quality characteristics and UV-visible spectra. Principal component analysis (PCA) and orthogonal projection to latent structure discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) were applied to elaborate the data. Models were built on the most informative portion of the spectra (250-550 nm) as: untreated (without pretreatment) and standard normal variate-second-derivative-treated (SNV+2der) data matrices. OPLS-DA classification models were validated by independent prediction sets and cross-validation. PCA score plots of both chemical and spectral data matrices revealed geographical distinction between the palm oil samples. Significantly high carotene content, free fatty acids, acid value, and peroxide value distinguished Central palm oils. K extinction values, color density, and chlorophyll content were the most important quality parameters separating North oil samples. In the discriminant models, over 95% and 85% percent correct classification were recorded for spectral and chemical data, respectively. These results cannot be considered exhaustive because of the limited sample size used. However, the study suggested a potential analytical technique suitable for geographical origin authentication of palm oils with additional advantages that include the following: speed, low cost, and minimal waste.

Impact of Crude Oil Quality on the Refining Conditions and Composition of Nutraceuticals in Refined Palm Oil

Palm oil is the major vegetable oil used worldwide due to its unique properties. The effect of crude palm oil acidity on the final free fatty acids (FFA) content, neutral oil loss (NOL), and nutraceutical compounds, such as carotenes, total tocols (tocopherols and tocotrienols), squalene, and phytosterols was investigated. A central composite design was employed to study the influence of the refining conditions: temperature (200 to 260 °C), steam percentage (0.5% to 3.5%), and initial FFA content (2.2% to 6.0%) on the quality of the refined product. The results revealed that initial palm oil acidity is a statistically important parameter to obtain commercially acceptable values for final FFA content. The increase of temperature presented the most important effect on the reduction of all nutraceutical compounds. The highest tocopherols (88%), phytosterols (98%), and squalene retention (84%) was obtained when applying the mildest temperature (200 °C). From the experimental results, 3 equations were generated enabling the prediction of the free fatty acids content, the tocols content, and the losses of neutral oil. Therefore, this work contributes to the understanding and optimization of the process for the production of palm oil with high nutraceutical quality and low free fatty acid contents.