Characterization of different water/powder ratios of dental gypsum using fiber Bragg grating sensors

Setting time of construction gypsum, dental plaster, and white orthodontic gypsum

Background. Dental plaster, white orthodontic gypsum, and construction gypsum have β-hemihydrate particles. Setting time is an essential property of dental gypsum, which can affect the strength of the material. This research aimed to compare construction gypsum, dental plaster, and white orthodontic gypsum's initial and final setting times. Methods. Three groups were included in this experimental laboratory study: construction gypsum (A), dental plaster (B), and white orthodontic gypsum (C). Each group consisted of 10 samples. Gypsum manipulation consisted of using 120 gr of powder and 60 mL of water. Gypsum powder and water were mixed using a gypsum mixer at 120 rpm. A homogeneous mixture was poured into a mold, and the setting time was measured using a Gillmore needle, according to ASTM C266-03. The initial setting time test was measured using 113.4 grams and a 2.12-mm needle. The final setting time was measured using 453.6 grams and a 1.06-mm needle. This test was repeated until the needle failed to penetrate the gypsum's surface. All the data were analyzed with one-way ANOVA and post hoc Tukey tests using SPSS 23. Results. The average initial setting time for groups A, B, and C were 10.39±1.19, 16.17±1.40, and 24.46±1.51, respectively. The average final setting time for groups A, B, and C were 15.97±0.79, 24.31±0.88) and 33.37±0.66, respectively. One-way ANOVA and post hoc Tukey tests showed significant differences in the initial and final setting times between the three groups (P<0.05). Conclusion. There were differences in setting time between dental plaster, white orthodontic gypsum, and construction gypsum. The construction gypsum's setting time is suitable as a type II dental gypsum, according to ADA No.25.

Biomechanical behaviour of bulk-fill resin composites in class II restorations

The aim of this study was to evaluate the biomechanical properties expressed by shrinkage stress, cuspal strain, fracture strength and failure mode in molars with large class II mesio-occlusal-distal restorations. Sixty-four human caries-free third molars were selected and distributed randomly into four groups: Z100 restorative material (Z100), Tetric N-Ceram Bulk-Fill (TNC), Filtek Bulk-Fill (FBF) and Aura Ultra Universal (ABF). The bulk-fill materials were inserted in one singular bulk increment and the conventional composite resin in three ones. Polymerisation shrinkage stress was evaluated by optical Fibre Bragg Gratings (FBG) sensors (n = 6). The cuspal deformation was measured using an extensometer during three moments: restorative procedure, axial compressive loading and at fracture (n = 10). The fracture strength was evaluated on a universal machine. The failure mode was analysed by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). Data were analysed using one-way ANOVA tests with Tukey's posthoc test (α = 5%). Data of the failure mode were submitted to a likelihood ratio chi-square test. Z100 presented the highest mean value for the shrinkage stress (p < 0.05) by FBG evaluation, whereas bulk-fill resin groups presented low polymerisation stress mean value, especially the TNC (p < 0.05). The cuspal deformation test showed that Z100 presented a significant difference mean value compared to the other groups (p < 0.01) during the restoration and compressive axial force; however, load until the fracture presented a difference only between TNC and FBF (p < 0.05). The fracture strength of TNC was statistically different from Z100 (p < 0.01). The failure mode was not statistically different in all the groups (p > 0.05). Bulk-fill composites promoted less polymerisation shrinkage stress than conventional microhybrid composite during and after the light curing process in class II posterior resin composite restorations.

Polymerization Shrinkage Evaluation of Restorative Resin-Based Composites Using Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors

The purpose of this study was to compare the linear polymerization shrinkage of different restorative resin-based composites (RBCs) using fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors. Five RBCs were evaluated: Zirconfill^® (ZFL); Aura Bulk-Fill (ABF); Tetric^® N-Ceram Bulk-Fill (TBF); Filtek^TM Bulk-Fill (FBF); and Admira Fusion-Ormocer^® (ADF). Ten samples per resin were produced in standardized custom-made half-gutter silicone molds. Two optical FBG sensors were used to assess temperature and polymerization shrinkage. Light curing was performed for 40 s and polymerization shrinkage was evaluated at 5, 10, 40, 60, 150, and 300 s. Statistical analysis was accomplished for normal distribution (Shapiro-Wilk, p > 0.05). Two-way repeated measures ANOVA with Greenhouse-Geisser correction followed by Bonferroni′s post-hoc test was used to analyze the linear shrinkage data (p < 0.05). ZFL showed the highest linear shrinkage and ADF the lowest. Shrinkage increased for all RBCs until 300 s, where significant differences were found between ADF and all other resins (p < 0.05). Among bulk-fill RBCs, TBF showed the lowest shrinkage value, but not statistically different from FBF. The ADF presented lower linear shrinkage than all other RBCs, and restorative bulk-fill composites exhibited an intermediate behavior.

Cuspal Displacement Induced by Bulk Fill Resin Composite Polymerization: Biomechanical Evaluation Using Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors

Polymerization shrinkage is a major concern to the clinical success of direct composite resin restorations. The aim of this study was to compare the effect of polymerization shrinkage strain of two resin composites on cuspal movement based on the use of fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors. Twenty standardized Class II cavities prepared in upper third molars were allocated into two groups (n = 10). Restorations involved the bulk fill placement of conventional microhybrid resin composite (Esthet•X® HD, Dentsply DeTrey) (Group 1) or flowable "low-shrinkage" resin composite (SDR™, Dentsply DeTrey) (Group 2). Two FBG sensors were used per restoration for real-time measurement of cuspal linear deformation and temperature variation. Group comparisons were determined using ANCOVA (α = 0.05) considering temperature as the covariate. A statistically significant correlation between cuspal deflection, time, and material was observed (p < 0.01). Cuspal deflection reached 8.8 μm (0.23%) and 7.8 μm (0.20%) in Groups 1 and 2, respectively. When used with bulk fill technique, flowable resin composite SDR™ induced significantly less cuspal deflection than the conventional resin composite Esthet•X® HD (p = 0.015) and presented a smoother curve slope during the polymerization. FBG sensors appear to be a valid tool for accurate real-time monitoring of cuspal deformation.

From conventional sensors to fibre optic sensors for strain and force measurements in biomechanics applications: a review

In vivo measurement, not only in animals but also in humans, is a demanding task and is the ultimate goal in experimental biomechanics. For that purpose, measurements in vivo must be performed, under physiological conditions, to obtain a database and contribute for the development of analytical models, used to describe human biomechanics. The knowledge and control of the mechanisms involved in biomechanics will allow the optimization of the performance in different topics like in clinical procedures and rehabilitation, medical devices and sports, among others. Strain gages were first applied to bone in a live animal in 40's and in 80's for the first time were applied fibre optic sensors to perform in vivo measurements of Achilles tendon forces in man. Fibre optic sensors proven to have advantages compare to conventional sensors and a great potential for biomechanical and biomedical applications. Compared to them, they are smaller, easier to implement, minimally invasive, with lower risk of infection, highly accurate, well correlated, inexpensive and multiplexable. The aim of this review article is to give an overview about the evolution of the experimental techniques applied in biomechanics, from conventional to fibre optic sensors. In the next sections the most relevant contributions of these sensors, for strain and force in biomechanical applications, will be presented. Emphasis was given to report of in vivo experiments and clinical applications.