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Jansen K, Shikama-Dorn N, Attar M, Maio S, Lopopolo M, Buck D, Holländer GA, Sansom SN. RBFOX splicing factors contribute to a broad but selective recapitulation of peripheral tissue splicing patterns in the thymus. Genome Res 2021; 31:2022-2034. [PMID: 34649931 PMCID: PMC8559713 DOI: 10.1101/gr.275245.121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Thymic epithelial cells (TEC) control the selection of a T cell repertoire reactive to pathogens but tolerant of self. This process is known to involve the promiscuous expression of virtually the entire protein-coding gene repertoire, but the extent to which TEC recapitulate peripheral isoforms, and the mechanisms by which they do so, remain largely unknown. We performed the first assembly-based transcriptomic census of transcript structures and splicing factor (SF) expression in mouse medullary TEC (mTEC) and 21 peripheral tissues. Mature mTEC expressed 60.1% of all protein-coding transcripts, more than was detected in any of the peripheral tissues. However, for genes with tissue-restricted expression, mTEC produced fewer isoforms than did the relevant peripheral tissues. Analysis of exon inclusion revealed an absence of brain-specific microexons in mTEC. We did not find unusual numbers of novel transcripts in TEC, and we show that Aire, the facilitator of promiscuous gene expression, promotes the generation of long “classical” transcripts (with 5′ and 3′ UTRs) but has only a limited impact on alternative splicing in mTEC. Comprehensive assessment of SF expression in mTEC identified a small set of nonpromiscuously expressed SF genes, among which we confirmed RBFOX to be present with AIRE in mTEC nuclei. Using a conditional loss-of-function approach, we show that Rbfox2 promotes mTEC development and regulates the alternative splicing of promiscuously expressed genes. These data indicate that TEC recommission a small number of peripheral SFs, including members of the RBFOX family, to generate a broad but selective representation of the peripheral splice isoform repertoire.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathrin Jansen
- The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FY, United Kingdom.,Department of Paediatrics and the Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, United Kingdom
| | - Noriko Shikama-Dorn
- The University Children's Hospital of Basel and the Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Moustafa Attar
- The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FY, United Kingdom.,Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, United Kingdom
| | - Stefano Maio
- Department of Paediatrics and the Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, United Kingdom
| | - Maria Lopopolo
- Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, United Kingdom
| | - David Buck
- Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, United Kingdom
| | - Georg A Holländer
- Department of Paediatrics and the Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, United Kingdom.,The University Children's Hospital of Basel and the Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, 4056 Basel, Switzerland.,Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zurich, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stephen N Sansom
- The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FY, United Kingdom
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Taher Y, Ali I, Al-Ani G, Alwan A. Prognostic values of β2 microglobulin, interleukin-4, and interleukin-6 in patients with different stages of chronic lymphocytic leukemia. IRAQI JOURNAL OF HEMATOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.4103/ijh.ijh_4_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
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3
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Chen Q, Zhu J. Detecting virus-specific effects on post-infection temporal gene expression. BMC Bioinformatics 2019; 20:129. [PMID: 30925863 PMCID: PMC6439963 DOI: 10.1186/s12859-019-2653-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Different types of viruses have different envelope proteins, and may have their shared or distinctive host-virus interactions which result in various post-infection effects in humans and animals. These effects often do not appear at once but take time to unfold. To characterize the virus-specific effects, we applied a Multivariate Polynomial Time-dependent Genetic Association (MPTGA) method, previously proposed for detecting differences in temporal gene expression traits, to test for the differences in mouse lung transcriptome response to infection of different subtypes of influenza A viruses. Results We compared two methods: the Multivariate Polynomial Time-dependent Genetic Association (MPTGA) method, and the conventional modified t-test, to study the virus-specific effects on mouse lung gene expression. Both methods found H3N2 to be the most different virus among the three viruses tested, with the largest number of genes with H3N2-specific effects. However, the MPTGA method demonstrated much higher power of detection, and the detected genes with virus-specific effects showed better biological relevance. Conclusions Transcriptome response to virus infection is dynamic. MPTGA which leverages temporal gene expression traits showed increased power in detecting biologically relevant virus-specific effects comparing with conventional t-test method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quan Chen
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, 10029, NY, USA.,Icahn Institute for Genomics and Multiscale Biology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, 10029, NY, USA
| | - Jun Zhu
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, 10029, NY, USA. .,Icahn Institute for Genomics and Multiscale Biology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, 10029, NY, USA. .,Sema4, a Mount Sinai venture, Stamford, 06902, CT, USA.
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4
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Kajikawa M, Ose T, Fukunaga Y, Okabe Y, Matsumoto N, Yonezawa K, Shimizu N, Kollnberger S, Kasahara M, Maenaka K. Structure of MHC class I-like MILL2 reveals heparan-sulfate binding and interdomain flexibility. Nat Commun 2018; 9:4330. [PMID: 30337538 PMCID: PMC6193965 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-06797-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2017] [Accepted: 09/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The MILL family, composed of MILL1 and MILL2, is a group of nonclassical MHC class I molecules that occur in some orders of mammals. It has been reported that mouse MILL2 is involved in wound healing; however, the molecular mechanisms remain unknown. Here, we determine the crystal structure of MILL2 at 2.15 Å resolution, revealing an organization similar to classical MHC class I. However, the α1-α2 domains are not tightly fixed on the α3-β2m domains, indicating unusual interdomain flexibility. The groove between the two helices in the α1-α2 domains is too narrow to permit ligand binding. Notably, an unusual basic patch on the α3 domain is involved in the binding to heparan sulfate which is essential for MILL2 interactions with fibroblasts. These findings suggest that MILL2 has a unique structural architecture and physiological role, with binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycans on fibroblasts possibly regulating cellular recruitment in biological events. The MILL (MHC-I-like located near the leukocyte receptor complex) family is a group of related nonclassical MHC-I molecules. Here the authors present the crystal structure of MILL2, which reveals an unusual interdomain flexibility, and show that MILL2 binds heparan sulfate on the surface of fibroblasts through a basic patch.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mizuho Kajikawa
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Showa Pharmaceutical University, Machida, Tokyo, 190-8543, Japan.,Medical Institute of Bioregulation, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, 812-8582, Japan
| | - Toyoyuki Ose
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Science, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 060-0812, Japan
| | - Yuko Fukunaga
- Medical Institute of Bioregulation, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, 812-8582, Japan
| | - Yuki Okabe
- Medical Institute of Bioregulation, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, 812-8582, Japan.,Laboratory of Biomolecular Science, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 060-0812, Japan
| | - Naoki Matsumoto
- Department of Integrated Biosciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Chiba, 277-8562, Japan
| | - Kento Yonezawa
- Photon Factory, High Energy Accelerator Research Organization, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0801, Japan
| | - Nobutaka Shimizu
- Photon Factory, High Energy Accelerator Research Organization, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0801, Japan
| | - Simon Kollnberger
- Cardiff Institute of Infection & Immunity, University of Cardiff, Henry Wellcome Building, Heath Park, Cardiff, CF14 4XN, UK
| | - Masanori Kasahara
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine and Graduate School of Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 060-8638, Japan
| | - Katsumi Maenaka
- Medical Institute of Bioregulation, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, 812-8582, Japan. .,Laboratory of Biomolecular Science, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 060-0812, Japan.
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5
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Abstract
NKG2D ligands (NKG2DLs) are a group of stress-inducible major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I-like molecules that act as a danger signal alerting the immune system to the presence of abnormal cells. In mammals, two families of NKG2DL genes have been identified: the MIC gene family encoded in the MHC region and the ULBP gene family encoded outside the MHC region in most species. Some mammals have a third family of NKG2DL-like class I genes which we named MILL (MHC class I-like located near the leukocyte receptor complex). Despite the fact that MILL genes are more closely related to MIC genes than ULBP genes are to MIC genes, MILL molecules do not function as NKG2DLs, and their function remains unknown. With the progress of mammalian genome projects, information on the MIC, ULBP, and MILL gene families became available in many mammalian species. Here, we summarize such information and discuss the origin and evolution of the NKG2DL gene family from the viewpoint of host-pathogen coevolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masanori Kasahara
- Department of Pathology, Hokkaido University Graduate School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Yoichi Sutoh
- Emory Vaccine Center and Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
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Li L, Dong M, Wang XG. The Implication and Significance of Beta 2 Microglobulin: A Conservative Multifunctional Regulator. Chin Med J (Engl) 2016; 129:448-55. [PMID: 26879019 PMCID: PMC4800846 DOI: 10.4103/0366-6999.176084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This review focuses on the current knowledge on the implication and significance of beta 2 microglobulin (β2M), a conservative immune molecule in vertebrate. DATA SOURCES The data used in this review were obtained from PubMed up to October 2015. Terms of β2M, immune response, and infection were used in the search. STUDY SELECTIONS Articles related to β2M were retrieved and reviewed. Articles focusing on the characteristic and function of β2M were selected. The exclusion criteria of articles were that the studies on β2M-related molecules. RESULTS β2M is critical for the immune surveillance and modulation in vertebrate animals. The dysregulation of β2M is associated with multiple diseases, including endogenous and infectious diseases. β2M could directly participate in the development of cancer cells, and the level of β2M is deemed as a prognostic marker for several malignancies. It also involves in forming major histocompatibility complex (MHC class I or MHC I) or like heterodimers, covering from antigen presentation to immune homeostasis. CONCLUSIONS Based on the characteristic of β2M, it or its signaling pathway has been targeted as biomedical or therapeutic tools. Moreover, β2M is highly conserved among different species, and overall structures are virtually identical, implying the versatility of β2M on applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Li
- Department of Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science and Biotechnology, Tianjin Agricultural University, Tianjin 300384, China
- Tianjin Engineering Research Center of Agricultural Products Processing, Tianjin 300384, China
| | - Mei Dong
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Wangdu Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Baoding, Hebei 072450, China
| | - Xiao-Guang Wang
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Anschutz Medical Campus, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora 80045, Colorado, USA
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Girard T, Gaucher D, El-Far M, Breton G, Sékaly RP. CD80 and CD86 IgC domains are important for quaternary structure, receptor binding and co-signaling function. Immunol Lett 2014; 161:65-75. [DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2014.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2014] [Accepted: 05/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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8
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Kasahara M, Yoshida S. Immunogenetics of the NKG2D ligand gene family. Immunogenetics 2012; 64:855-67. [PMID: 22843249 DOI: 10.1007/s00251-012-0638-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2012] [Accepted: 07/18/2012] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
NKG2D ligands (NKG2DLs) are a group of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I-like molecules, the expression of which is induced by cellular stresses such as infection, tumorigenesis, heat shock, tissue damage, and DNA damage. They act as a molecular danger signal alerting the immune system for infected or neoplastic cells. Mammals have two families of NKG2DL genes: the MHC-encoded MIC gene family and the ULBP gene family encoded outside the MHC region in most mammals. Rodents such as mice and rats lack the MIC family of ligands. Interestingly, some mammals have NKG2DL-like molecules named MILL that are phylogenetically related to MIC, but do not function as NKG2DLs. In this paper, we review our current knowledge of the MIC, ULBP, and MILL gene families in representative mammalian species and discuss the origin and evolution of the NKG2DL gene family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masanori Kasahara
- Department of Pathology, Hokkaido University Graduate School of Medicine, North-15 West-7, Sapporo 060-8638, Japan.
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9
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Yoshida S, Mohamed RH, Kajikawa M, Koizumi J, Tanaka M, Fugo K, Otsuka N, Maenaka K, Yagita H, Chiba H, Kasahara M. Involvement of an NKG2D ligand H60c in epidermal dendritic T cell-mediated wound repair. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 188:3972-9. [PMID: 22403443 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1102886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Dendritic epidermal T cells (DETCs) found in mouse skin are NKG2D-positive γδ T cells involved in immune surveillance and wound repair. It is assumed that the interaction of an NKG2D receptor on DETCs and an MHC class I-like NKG2D ligand on keratinocytes activates DETCs, which then secrete cytokines promoting wound repair. However, direct evidence that DETC activation through NKG2D signaling promotes wound repair is not available. In the present study, we generated mAbs for an NKG2D ligand H60c previously suggested to be expressed specifically on skin keratinocytes. Local administration of H60c-specific mAb inhibited activation of DETCs and significantly delayed wound repair. Likewise, administration of NKG2D-specific mAb impaired wound repair to a similar extent. The delay in wound closure resulting from the blockade of the NKG2D pathway was comparable to that observed in γδ T cell-deficient mice. These results indicate that H60c/NKG2D interactions play a critical role in wound repair. Reassessment of binding affinities showed that H60c monomers bind to NKG2D with affinity (K(d) = 26 ± 3.2 nM) comparable to those of other high-affinity NKG2D ligands. H60c is transcribed not only in skin but also in tissues such as tongue and female reproductive tract known to contain epithelium-resident γδ T cells expressing invariant TCRs, suggesting a more general role for H60c in the maintenance of epithelial integrity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shigeru Yoshida
- Department of Pathology, Hokkaido University Graduate School of Medicine, Sapporo 060-8638, Japan
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10
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Georgel P, Radosavljevic M, Macquin C, Bahram S. The non-conventional MHC class I MR1 molecule controls infection by Klebsiella pneumoniae in mice. Mol Immunol 2010; 48:769-75. [PMID: 21190736 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2010.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2010] [Revised: 12/04/2010] [Accepted: 12/06/2010] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
As opposed to the well established role of MHC-linked, polymorphic, class I (MHC-I) genes in adaptive immunity, a universal role for non-conventional MHC-I is unknown, thus requiring a case-by-case study. The MHC unlinked, monomorphic, but β₂microglobulin (β₂m)-associated "MHC class I related" MR1 molecule interacts with a semi-invariant TCR. The pathophysiology of this interaction or more importantly of this peculiar MHC-I remains mostly unknown. Recently it was shown that β₂m deficient mice were more susceptible to infection by Klebsiella pneumoniae, a widely spread Gram-negative bacteria that causes diverse and often severe ailments in man. Here we demonstrate, using both an in vivo imaging system and survival tests, the increased susceptibility to K. pneumoniae (but not to several other Gram negative bacteria) of MR1 deficient mice. This is accompanied by a consequent change in body temperature and systemic cytokine profile. Hence MR1 controls K. pneumoniae infection in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philippe Georgel
- Laboratoire d'Immunogénétique Moléculaire Humaine, Centre de Recherche d'Immunologie et d'Hématologie, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Strasbourg, 4 rue Kirschleger, 67085 Strasbourg Cedex, France
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11
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Kondo M, Maruoka T, Otsuka N, Kasamatsu J, Fugo K, Hanzawa N, Kasahara M. Comparative genomic analysis of mammalian NKG2D ligand family genes provides insights into their origin and evolution. Immunogenetics 2010; 62:441-50. [PMID: 20376438 DOI: 10.1007/s00251-010-0438-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2010] [Accepted: 03/08/2010] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
NKG2D is a major activating receptor of natural killer cells. Its ligands are major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I-like molecules whose expression is induced by cellular stresses such as infections and tumorigenesis. Humans have two families of NKG2D ligands (NKG2DL): MHC class I-related chains (MIC) encoded in the MHC and UL16-binding proteins (ULBP) encoded outside the MHC. By contrast, mice have only the latter family of ligands; instead, they have non-MHC-encoded MILL molecules that are closely related to MIC, but do not function as NKG2DL. To gain insights into the origin and evolution of MIC, ULBP, and MILL gene families, we conducted comparative genomic analysis of NKG2DL family genes in five mammalian species. In the opossum MHC, we identified a ULBP-like gene adjacent to a previously described MIC-like gene, suggesting that ULBP genes were originally encoded in the MHC. The opossum genome also contained a transcribed MILL-like gene in a region syntenic to the rodent regions encoding MILL molecules. These observations indicate that MIC-, ULBP-, and MILL-like genes emerged before the divergence of placental and marsupial mammals. Comparison of the human, cattle, rat, mouse, and opossum genomes indicates that after emigration from the MHC, ULBP genes underwent extensive duplications in each species. In mice, some of the ULBP genes appear to have been translocated telomerically on the same chromosome, forming a major cluster of existent NKG2DL genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mizuho Kondo
- Department of Pathology, Hokkaido University Graduate School of Medicine, North-15 West-7, Sapporo, 060-8638, Japan
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12
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Rabinovich BA, Ketchem RR, Wolfson M, Goldstein L, Skelly M, Cosman D. A role for the MHC class I-like Mill molecules in nutrient metabolism and wound healing. Immunol Cell Biol 2008; 86:489-96. [PMID: 18560379 DOI: 10.1038/icb.2008.41] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
MHC class I family members serve multiple functions beyond antigen presentation. We provide insight into the structure, expression and function of the Mill subfamily. This family includes two surface glycoproteins, Mill1 and Mill2. Protein sequences for Mill1 and Mill2 are most highly related to the NKG2D ligands, MICA and MICB, but neither of them bound to NKG2D. Computer-based protein modelling indicated that hereditary haemochromatosis protein (HFE), a molecule involved in iron uptake, was most similar. Mill1 and Mill2 were observed on cycling thymocytes, proliferating smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts. Using soluble Mill proteins, we found evidence for a soluble ligand in serum. Like HFE, the Mill family may be involved in nutrient metabolism. Skin was one of the only three organs found to express transcripts for both Mill1 and Mill2. Addition of antibodies specific for Mill2 to wounded skin enhanced healing. Our results suggest a role for the Mill proteins in cellular metabolism, with possible therapeutic significance.
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Takada A, Yoshida S, Kajikawa M, Miyatake Y, Tomaru U, Sakai M, Chiba H, Maenaka K, Kohda D, Fugo K, Kasahara M. Two novel NKG2D ligands of the mouse H60 family with differential expression patterns and binding affinities to NKG2D. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 180:1678-85. [PMID: 18209064 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.180.3.1678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
H60, originally described as a dominant minor histocompatibility Ag, is an MHC class I-like molecule that serves as a ligand for the NKG2D receptor. In the present study, we identified two novel mouse chromosome 10-encoded NKG2D ligands structurally resembling H60. These ligands, which we named H60b and H60c, encode MHC class I-like molecules with two extracellular domains. Whereas H60b has a transmembrane region, H60c is a GPI-anchored protein. Recombinant soluble H60b and H60c proteins bound to NKG2D with affinities typical of cell-cell recognition receptors (K(d) = 310 nM for H60b and K(d) = 8.7 muM for H60c). Furthermore, expression of H60b or H60c rendered Ba/F3 cells susceptible to lysis by NK cells, thereby establishing H60b and H60c as functional ligands for NKG2D. H60b and H60c transcripts were detected only at low levels in tissues of healthy adult mice. Whereas H60b transcripts were detectable in various tissues, H60c transcripts were detected mainly in the skin. Infection of mouse embryonic fibroblasts with murine cytomegalovirus induced expression of H60b, but not H60c or the previously known H60 gene, indicating that transcriptional activation of the three types of H60 genes is differentially regulated. The present study adds two new members to the current list of NKG2D ligands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akio Takada
- Department of Pathology, Hokkaido University Graduate School of Medicine, North-15 West-7, Sapporo, Japan
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