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Sun F, Yang CL, Wang FX, Rong SJ, Luo JH, Lu WY, Yue TT, Wang CY, Liu SW. Pancreatic draining lymph nodes (PLNs) serve as a pathogenic hub contributing to the development of type 1 diabetes. Cell Biosci 2023; 13:156. [PMID: 37641145 PMCID: PMC10464122 DOI: 10.1186/s13578-023-01110-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2023] [Accepted: 08/21/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is a chronic, progressive autoinflammatory disorder resulting from the breakdown of self-tolerance and unrestrained β cell-reactive immune response. Activation of immune cells is initiated in islet and amplified in lymphoid tissues, especially those pancreatic draining lymph nodes (PLNs). The knowledge of PLNs as the hub of aberrant immune response is continuously being replenished and renewed. Here we provide a PLN-centered view of T1D pathogenesis and emphasize that PLNs integrate signal inputs from the pancreas, gut, viral infection or peripheral circulation, undergo immune remodeling within the local microenvironment and export effector cell components into pancreas to affect T1D progression. In accordance, we suggest that T1D intervention can be implemented by three major ways: cutting off the signal inputs into PLNs (reduce inflammatory β cell damage, enhance gut integrity and control pathogenic viral infections), modulating the immune activation status of PLNs and blocking the outputs of PLNs towards pancreatic islets. Given the dynamic and complex nature of T1D etiology, the corresponding intervention strategy is thus required to be comprehensive to ensure optimal therapeutic efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Sun
- Shanxi Bethune Hospital, Shanxi Academy of Medical Science, Tongji Shanxi Hospital, Third Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
- NHC Key Laboratory of Respiratory Diseases, Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, The Center for Biomedical Research, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Chun-Liang Yang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Respiratory Diseases, Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, The Center for Biomedical Research, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Fa-Xi Wang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Respiratory Diseases, Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, The Center for Biomedical Research, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Shan-Jie Rong
- NHC Key Laboratory of Respiratory Diseases, Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, The Center for Biomedical Research, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Jia-Hui Luo
- NHC Key Laboratory of Respiratory Diseases, Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, The Center for Biomedical Research, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Wan-Ying Lu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Respiratory Diseases, Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, The Center for Biomedical Research, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Tian-Tian Yue
- Devision of Nutrition, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Cong-Yi Wang
- Shanxi Bethune Hospital, Shanxi Academy of Medical Science, Tongji Shanxi Hospital, Third Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China.
- NHC Key Laboratory of Respiratory Diseases, Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, The Center for Biomedical Research, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.
| | - Shi-Wei Liu
- Shanxi Bethune Hospital, Shanxi Academy of Medical Science, Tongji Shanxi Hospital, Third Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China.
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Fan W, Pang H, Shi X, Li J, Wang Y, Luo S, Lin J, Yu H, Xiao Y, Li X, Huang G, Xie Z, Zhou Z. Plasma-derived exosomal mRNA profiles associated with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Front Immunol 2022; 13:995610. [PMID: 36177022 PMCID: PMC9513134 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.995610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2022] [Accepted: 08/26/2022] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Exosomes carry various types of transcripts, such as messenger RNAs (mRNAs), and play an important role in mediating cell-to-cell communication, thus influencing multiple physiological and pathological processes. However, the role of exosomal mRNAs in T1DM is largely unknown. Here, we aimed to identify the plasma-derived exosomal mRNA expression profiles in T1DM and to explore their potential biological functions in T1DM. Materials and Methods Plasma-derived exosomes were isolated from 10 patients with T1DM and 10 age- and sex-matched control subjects by size exclusion chromatography methods. Transmission electron microscopy, nanoparticle tracking analysis, and western blot analysis confirmed the presence of exosomes. The exosomal mRNAs were analyzed using the Illumina HiSeq platform. Six differentially expressed mRNAs (DEMs) were randomly selected to determine the expression level by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT−PCR) in a larger cohort (T1DM subjects N=40; control subjects N=40). The biological functions of DEMs were predicted by Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analyses. Protein−protein interaction networks were constructed to explore the potential associations among DEMs. Results In total, 112 DEMs were identified in T1DM, among which 66 mRNAs were upregulated and 46 mRNAs were downregulated. Four of six candidate exosomal mRNAs were successfully validated by qRT−PCR. Bioinformatics analysis indicated that these mRNAs were most significantly involved in positive regulation by host viral transcription (GO enrichment analysis) and oxidative phosphorylation (KEGG pathway analysis). Conclusions Our study reported the plasma-derived exosomal mRNA expression profiles of T1DM for the first time. The identified DEMs might be associated with the pathogenesis of T1DM, and some DEMs have the potential to serve as biomarkers and therapeutic targets for T1DM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenqi Fan
- National Clinical Research Center for Metabolic Diseases, Key Laboratory of Diabetes Immunology (Central South University), Ministry of Education, Changsha, China
- Department of Metabolism and Endocrinology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Haipeng Pang
- National Clinical Research Center for Metabolic Diseases, Key Laboratory of Diabetes Immunology (Central South University), Ministry of Education, Changsha, China
- Department of Metabolism and Endocrinology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Xiajie Shi
- National Clinical Research Center for Metabolic Diseases, Key Laboratory of Diabetes Immunology (Central South University), Ministry of Education, Changsha, China
- Department of Metabolism and Endocrinology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Jiaqi Li
- National Clinical Research Center for Metabolic Diseases, Key Laboratory of Diabetes Immunology (Central South University), Ministry of Education, Changsha, China
- Department of Metabolism and Endocrinology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Yimeng Wang
- National Clinical Research Center for Metabolic Diseases, Key Laboratory of Diabetes Immunology (Central South University), Ministry of Education, Changsha, China
- Department of Metabolism and Endocrinology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Shuoming Luo
- National Clinical Research Center for Metabolic Diseases, Key Laboratory of Diabetes Immunology (Central South University), Ministry of Education, Changsha, China
- Department of Metabolism and Endocrinology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Jian Lin
- National Clinical Research Center for Metabolic Diseases, Key Laboratory of Diabetes Immunology (Central South University), Ministry of Education, Changsha, China
- Department of Metabolism and Endocrinology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Haibo Yu
- National Clinical Research Center for Metabolic Diseases, Key Laboratory of Diabetes Immunology (Central South University), Ministry of Education, Changsha, China
- Department of Metabolism and Endocrinology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Yang Xiao
- National Clinical Research Center for Metabolic Diseases, Key Laboratory of Diabetes Immunology (Central South University), Ministry of Education, Changsha, China
- Department of Metabolism and Endocrinology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Xia Li
- National Clinical Research Center for Metabolic Diseases, Key Laboratory of Diabetes Immunology (Central South University), Ministry of Education, Changsha, China
- Department of Metabolism and Endocrinology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Gan Huang
- National Clinical Research Center for Metabolic Diseases, Key Laboratory of Diabetes Immunology (Central South University), Ministry of Education, Changsha, China
- Department of Metabolism and Endocrinology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Zhiguo Xie
- National Clinical Research Center for Metabolic Diseases, Key Laboratory of Diabetes Immunology (Central South University), Ministry of Education, Changsha, China
- Department of Metabolism and Endocrinology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
- *Correspondence: Zhiguo Xie, ; Zhiguang Zhou,
| | - Zhiguang Zhou
- National Clinical Research Center for Metabolic Diseases, Key Laboratory of Diabetes Immunology (Central South University), Ministry of Education, Changsha, China
- Department of Metabolism and Endocrinology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
- *Correspondence: Zhiguo Xie, ; Zhiguang Zhou,
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Dangerous Liaisons: Gammaherpesvirus Subversion of the Immunoglobulin Repertoire. Viruses 2020; 12:v12080788. [PMID: 32717815 PMCID: PMC7472090 DOI: 10.3390/v12080788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
A common biologic property of the gammaherpesviruses Epstein–Barr Virus and Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirus is their use of B lymphocytes as a reservoir of latency in healthy individuals that can undergo oncogenic transformation later in life. Gammaherpesviruses (GHVs) employ an impressive arsenal of proteins and non-coding RNAs to reprogram lymphocytes for proliferative expansion. Within lymphoid tissues, the germinal center (GC) reaction is a hub of B cell proliferation and death. The goal of a GC is to generate and then select for a pool of immunoglobulin (Ig) genes that will provide a protective humoral adaptive immune response. B cells infected with GHVs are detected in GCs and bear the hallmark signatures of the mutagenic processes of somatic hypermutation and isotype class switching of the Ig genes. However, data also supports extrafollicular B cells as a reservoir engaged by GHVs. Next-generation sequencing technologies provide unprecedented detail of the Ig sequence that informs the natural history of infection at the single cell level. Here, we review recent reports from human and murine GHV systems that identify striking differences in the immunoglobulin repertoire of infected B cells compared to their uninfected counterparts. Implications for virus biology, GHV-associated cancers, and host immune dysfunction will be discussed.
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Yong J, Tian J, Dang H, Wu TT, Atkinson MA, Sun R, Kaufman DL. Increased risk for T cell autoreactivity to ß-cell antigens in the mice expressing the A vy obesity-associated gene. Sci Rep 2019; 9:4269. [PMID: 30862859 PMCID: PMC6414670 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-38905-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2018] [Accepted: 01/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
There has been considerable debate as to whether obesity can act as an accelerator of type 1 diabetes (T1D). We assessed this possibility using transgenic mice (MIP-TF mice) whose ß-cells express enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP). Infecting these mice with EGFP-expressing murine herpes virus-68 (MHV68-EGFP) caused occasional transient elevation in their blood glucose, peri-insulitis, and Th1 responses to EGFP which did not spread to other ß-cell antigens. We hypothesized that obesity-related systemic inflammation and ß-cell stress could exacerbate the MHV68-EGFP-induced ß-cell autoreactivity. We crossed MIP-TF mice with Avy mice which develop obesity and provide models of metabolic disease alongside early stage T2D. Unlike their MIP-TF littermates, MHV68-EGFP-infected Avy/MIP-TF mice developed moderate intra-insulitis and transient hyperglycemia. MHV68-EGFP infection induced a more pronounced intra-insulitis in older, more obese, Avy/MIP-TF mice. Moreover, in MHV68-EGFP-infected Avy/MIP-TF mice, Th1 reactivity spread from EGFP to other ß-cell antigens. Thus, the spreading of autoreactivity among ß-cell antigens corresponded with the transition from peri-insulitis to intra-insulitis and occurred in obese Avy/MIP-TF mice but not lean MIP-TF mice. These observations are consistent with the notion that obesity-associated systemic inflammation and ß-cell stress lowers the threshold necessary for T cell autoreactivity to spread from EGFP to other ß-cell autoantigens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Yong
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095-1735, United States.,Sanford-Burnham-Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, 92037, United States
| | - Jide Tian
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095-1735, United States
| | - Hoa Dang
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095-1735, United States
| | - Ting-Ting Wu
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095-1735, United States
| | - Mark A Atkinson
- Departments of Pathology and Paediatrics, University of Florida Diabetes Institute, Gainesville, FL, 32610, United States
| | - Ren Sun
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095-1735, United States
| | - Daniel L Kaufman
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095-1735, United States.
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5
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Esposito S, Toni G, Tascini G, Santi E, Berioli MG, Principi N. Environmental Factors Associated With Type 1 Diabetes. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2019; 10:592. [PMID: 31555211 PMCID: PMC6722188 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2019.00592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is a chronic autoimmune disorder that leads to progressive pancreatic ß-cell destruction and culminates in absolute insulin deficiency and stable hyperglycaemia. It is very likely that environmental factors play a role in triggering islet autoimmunity. Knowing whether they have true relevance in favoring T1D development is essential for the effective prevention of the disease. Moreover, prevention could be obtained directly interfering with the development of autoimmunity through autoantigen-based immunotherapy. In this narrative review, the present possibilities for the prevention of T1D are discussed. Presently, interventions to prevent T1D are generally made in subjects in whom autoimmunity is already activated and autoantibodies against pancreatic cell components have been detected. Practically, the goal is to slow down the immune process by preserving the normal structure of the pancreatic islets for as long as possible. Unfortunately, presently methods able to avoid the risk of autoimmune activation are not available. Elimination of environmental factors associated with T1D development, reverse of epigenetic modifications that favor initiation of autoimmunity in subjects exposed to environmental factors and use of autoantigen-based immunotherapy are possible approaches, although for all these measures definitive conclusions cannot be drawn. However, the road is traced and it is possible that in a not so distant future an effective prevention of the disease to all the subjects at risk can be offered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanna Esposito
- Pediatric Clinic, Department of Surgical and Biomedical Sciences, Università degli Studi di Perugia, Perugia, Italy
- *Correspondence: Susanna Esposito
| | - Giada Toni
- Pediatric Clinic, Department of Surgical and Biomedical Sciences, Università degli Studi di Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - Giorgia Tascini
- Pediatric Clinic, Department of Surgical and Biomedical Sciences, Università degli Studi di Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - Elisa Santi
- Pediatric Clinic, Department of Surgical and Biomedical Sciences, Università degli Studi di Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - Maria Giulia Berioli
- Pediatric Clinic, Department of Surgical and Biomedical Sciences, Università degli Studi di Perugia, Perugia, Italy
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Cruz-Muñoz ME, Fuentes-Pananá EM. Beta and Gamma Human Herpesviruses: Agonistic and Antagonistic Interactions with the Host Immune System. Front Microbiol 2018; 8:2521. [PMID: 29354096 PMCID: PMC5760548 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.02521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2017] [Accepted: 12/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Viruses are the most abundant and diverse biological entities in the planet. Historically, our main interest in viruses has focused on their pathogenic role, recognized by pandemics that have decimated the world population. However, viral infections have also played a major role in the evolution of cellular organisms, both through interchanging of genes with novel functions and shaping the immune system. Examples abound of infections that seriously compromise the host integrity, but evidence of plant and insect viruses mutualistic relationships have recently surfaced in which infected hosts are better suited for survival, arguing that virus-host interactions are initially parasitic but become mutualistic over years of co-evolution. A similar mutual help scenario has emerged with commensal gut bacteria. EBV is a herpesvirus that shares more than a hundred million years of co-evolution with humans, today successfully infecting close to 100% of the adult world population. Infection is usually acquired early in childhood persisting for the host lifetime mostly without apparent clinical symptoms. Disturbance of this homeostasis is rare and results in several diseases, of which the best understood are infectious mononucleosis and several EBV-associated cancers. Less understood are recently found inborn errors of the immune system that result in primary immunodeficiencies with an increased predisposition almost exclusive to EBV-associated diseases. Puzzling to these scenarios of broken homeostasis is the co-existence of immunosuppression, inflammation, autoimmunity and cancer. Homologous to EBV, HCMV, HHV-6 and HHV-7 are herpesviruses that also latently infect most individuals. Several lines of evidence support a mutualistic equilibrium between HCMV/EBV and hosts, that when altered trigger diseases in which the immune system plays a critical role. Interestingly, these beta and gamma herpesviruses persistently infect all immune lineages and early precursor cells. In this review, we will discuss the evidence of the benefits that infection of immune cells with these herpesviruses brings to the host. Also, the circumstances in which this positive relationship is broken, predisposing the host to diseases characterized by an abnormal function of the host immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario E Cruz-Muñoz
- Laboratorio de Inmunología Molecular, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos, Cuernavaca, Mexico
| | - Ezequiel M Fuentes-Pananá
- Unidad de Investigación en Virología y Cáncer, Hospital Infantil de México Federico Gómez, Mexico City, Mexico
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7
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The hygiene hypothesis in autoimmunity: the role of pathogens and commensals. Nat Rev Immunol 2017; 18:105-120. [PMID: 29034905 DOI: 10.1038/nri.2017.111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 284] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The incidence of autoimmune diseases has been steadily rising. Concomitantly, the incidence of most infectious diseases has declined. This observation gave rise to the hygiene hypothesis, which postulates that a reduction in the frequency of infections contributes directly to the increase in the frequency of autoimmune and allergic diseases. This hypothesis is supported by robust epidemiological data, but the underlying mechanisms are unclear. Pathogens are known to be important, as autoimmune disease is prevented in various experimental models by infection with different bacteria, viruses and parasites. Gut commensal bacteria also play an important role: dysbiosis of the gut flora is observed in patients with autoimmune diseases, although the causal relationship with the occurrence of autoimmune diseases has not been established. Both pathogens and commensals act by stimulating immunoregulatory pathways. Here, I discuss the importance of innate immune receptors, in particular Toll-like receptors, in mediating the protective effect of pathogens and commensals on autoimmunity.
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Principi N, Berioli MG, Bianchini S, Esposito S. Type 1 diabetes and viral infections: What is the relationship? J Clin Virol 2017; 96:26-31. [PMID: 28934695 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2017.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2017] [Revised: 08/09/2017] [Accepted: 09/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is the most common chronic metabolic disorder in children. Epigenetic and environmental factors capable of altering the penetrance of major susceptibility genes or capable of increasing the penetrance of low-risk genes are currently thought to play a role in triggering autoimmunity and T1D development. This paper discusses the current knowledge of the role of viruses in T1D. Most studies that have evaluated the potential association between viral infections and T1D have indicated that it is highly likely that some of these infectious agents play a role in T1D development. However, most T1D cases are immune-mediated, and it is supposed that the initial viral infection is capable of creating, in genetically predisposed subjects, a particular condition in which chronic local inflammation occurs through the persistence of the infecting virus in pancreatic tissue and the activation of autoimmunity by means of molecular mimicry, bystander activation, or both. Theoretically, this knowledge could lead to possible prophylaxis and therapy for T1D. Further studies devoted to evaluating which infectious agents are linked to T1D and which immune mechanisms induce or protect against the disease are needed before adequate prophylactic and therapeutic measures can be developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Principi
- Professor Emeritus, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Sonia Bianchini
- Pediatric Clinic, Università degli Studi di Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - Susanna Esposito
- Pediatric Clinic, Università degli Studi di Perugia, Perugia, Italy.
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Nikolich-Zugich J, Goodrum F, Knox K, Smithey MJ. Known unknowns: how might the persistent herpesvirome shape immunity and aging? Curr Opin Immunol 2017; 48:23-30. [PMID: 28780492 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2017.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2017] [Revised: 07/08/2017] [Accepted: 07/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The microbial community that colonizes all living organisms is gaining appreciation for its contributions to both physiologic and pathogenic processes. The virome, a subset of the overall microbiome, large and diverse, including viruses that persistently inhabit host cells, endogenous viral elements genomically or epigenomically integrated into cells, and viruses that infect the other (bacterial, protozoan, fungal, and archaeal) microbiome phylla. These viruses live in the organism for its life, and therefore are to be considered part of the aging process experienced by the organism. This review considers the impact of the persistent latent virome on immune aging. Specific attention will be devoted to the role of herpesviruses, and within them, the cytomegalovirus, as the key modulators of immune aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janko Nikolich-Zugich
- Department of Immunobiology and the Arizona Center on Aging, University of Arizona College of Medicine-Tucson, Tucson, AZ 85724, United States.
| | - Felicia Goodrum
- Department of Immunobiology and the Arizona Center on Aging, University of Arizona College of Medicine-Tucson, Tucson, AZ 85724, United States
| | - Kenneth Knox
- Department of Immunobiology and the Arizona Center on Aging, University of Arizona College of Medicine-Tucson, Tucson, AZ 85724, United States; University of Arizona College of Medicine-Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ 85004, United States
| | - Megan J Smithey
- Department of Immunobiology and the Arizona Center on Aging, University of Arizona College of Medicine-Tucson, Tucson, AZ 85724, United States.
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Godkin A, Smith KA. Chronic infections with viruses or parasites: breaking bad to make good. Immunology 2017; 150:389-396. [PMID: 28009488 PMCID: PMC5343343 DOI: 10.1111/imm.12703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2016] [Revised: 12/02/2016] [Accepted: 12/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Eukaryotic forms of life have been continually invaded by microbes and larger multicellular parasites, such as helminths. Over a billion years ago bacterial endosymbionts permanently colonized eukaryotic cells leading to recognized organelles with a distinct genetic lineage, such as mitochondria and chloroplasts. Colonization of our skin and mucosal surfaces with bacterial commensals is now known to be important for host health. However, the contribution of chronic virus and parasitic infections to immune homeostasis is being increasingly questioned. Persistent infection does not necessarily equate to exhibiting a chronic illness: healthy hosts (e.g. humans) have chronic viral and parasitic infections with no evidence of disease. Indeed, there are now examples of complex interactions between these microbes and hosts that seem to confer an advantage to the host at a particular time, suggesting that the relationship has progressed along an axis from parasitic to commensal to one of a mutualistic symbiosis. This concept is explored using examples from viruses and parasites, considering how the relationships may be not only detrimental but also beneficial to the human host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Godkin
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University, Cardiff, Glamorgan, UK
| | - Katherine A Smith
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University, Cardiff, Glamorgan, UK
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Dong S, Forrest JC, Liang X. Murine Gammaherpesvirus 68: A Small Animal Model for Gammaherpesvirus-Associated Diseases. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2017; 1018:225-236. [DOI: 10.1007/978-981-10-5765-6_14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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12
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Moore JR, Adler F. A Mathematical Model of T1D Acceleration and Delay by Viral Infection. Bull Math Biol 2016; 78:500-30. [DOI: 10.1007/s11538-016-0152-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2015] [Accepted: 02/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Exposure to bisphenol A, but not phthalates, increases spontaneous diabetes type 1 development in NOD mice. Toxicol Rep 2015; 2:99-110. [PMID: 28962342 PMCID: PMC5598488 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2015.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2014] [Revised: 02/20/2015] [Accepted: 02/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is an autoimmune destruction of insulin producing pancreatic beta-cells due to a genetic predisposition and can be triggered by environmental factors. We have previously shown that bisphenol A (BPA) accelerates the spontaneous development of diabetes in non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice. Here, we hypothesized that oral exposure to a mixture of the endocrine disruptors BPA and phthalates, relevant for human exposure, would accelerate diabetes development compared to BPA alone. NOD mice were exposed to BPA (1 mg/l), a mixture of phthalates (DEHP 1 mg/l, DBP 0.2 mg/l, BBP 10 mg/l and DiBP 20 mg/l) or a combination of BPA and the phthalate mixture through drinking water from conception and throughout life. Previous observations that BPA exposure increased the prevalence of diabetes and insulitis and decreased the number of tissue resident macrophages in pancreas were confirmed, and extended by demonstrating that BPA exposure also impaired the phagocytic activity of peritoneal macrophages. None of these effects were observed after phthalate exposure alone. The phthalate exposure in combination with BPA seemed to dampen the BPA effects on macrophage number and function as well as diabetes development, but not insulitis development. Exposure to BPA alone or in combination with phthalates decreased cytokine release (TNFα, IL-6, IL-10, IFNγ, IL-4) from in vitro stimulated splenocytes and lymph node cells, indicating systemic changes in immune function. In conclusion, exposure to BPA, but not to phthalates or mixed exposure to BPA and phthalates, accelerated diabetes development in NOD mice, apparently in part via systemic immune alterations including decreased macrophage function.
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Gammaherpesvirus latency differentially impacts the generation of primary versus secondary memory CD8+ T cells during subsequent infection. J Virol 2014; 88:12740-51. [PMID: 25142586 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02106-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Unlike laboratory animals, humans are infected with multiple pathogens, including the highly prevalent herpesviruses. The purpose of these studies was to determine the effect of gammaherpesvirus latency on T cell number and differentiation during subsequent heterologous viral infections. Mice were first infected with murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV68), a model of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection, and then after latency was established, they were challenged with the Armstrong strain of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV). The initial replication of LCMV was lower in latently infected mice, and the maturation of dendritic cells was abated. Although the number of LCMV-specific effector CD8(+) T cells was not altered, they were skewed to a memory phenotype. In contrast, LCMV-specific effector CD4(+) T cells were increased in latently infected mice compared to those in mice infected solely with LCMV. When the memory phase was reached, latently infected mice had an LCMV-specific memory T cell pool that was increased relative to that found in singly infected mice. Importantly, LCMV-specific memory CD8(+) T cells had decreased CD27 and increased killer cell lectin-like receptor G1 (KLRG1) expression. Upon secondary challenge, LCMV-specific secondary effector CD8(+) T cells expanded and cleared the infection. However, the LCMV-specific secondary memory CD8(+) T cell pool was decreased in latently infected animals, abrogating the boosting effect normally observed following rechallenge. Taken together, these results demonstrate that ongoing gammaherpesvirus latency affects the number and phenotype of primary versus secondary memory CD8(+) T cells during acute infection. IMPORTANCE CD8(+) T cells are critical for the clearance of intracellular pathogens, including viruses, certain bacteria, and tumors. However, current models for memory CD8(+) T cell differentiation are derived from pathogen-free laboratory mice challenged with a single pathogen or vaccine vector. Unlike laboratory animals, all humans are infected with multiple acute and chronic pathogens, including the highly prevalent herpesviruses Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), cytomegalovirus (CMV), herpes simplex viruses (HSV), and varicella-zoster virus (VZV). The purpose of these studies was to determine the effect of gammaherpesvirus latency on T cell number and differentiation during subsequent heterologous viral infections. We observed that ongoing gammaherpesvirus latency affects the number and phenotype of primary versus secondary memory CD8(+) T cells during acute infection. These results suggest that unlike pathogen-free laboratory mice, infection or immunization of latently infected humans may result in the generation of T cells with limited potential for long-term protection.
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Virgin HW. The virome in mammalian physiology and disease. Cell 2014; 157:142-50. [PMID: 24679532 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2014.02.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 398] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2014] [Revised: 02/13/2014] [Accepted: 02/13/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The virome contains the most abundant and fastest mutating genetic elements on Earth. The mammalian virome is constituted of viruses that infect host cells, virus-derived elements in our chromosomes, and viruses that infect the broad array of other types of organisms that inhabit us. Virome interactions with the host cannot be encompassed by a monotheistic view of viruses as pathogens. Instead, the genetic and transcriptional identity of mammals is defined in part by our coevolved virome, a concept with profound implications for understanding health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Herbert W Virgin
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, Campus Box 8118, 660 South Euclid Avenue, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.
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16
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A gammaherpesvirus Bcl-2 ortholog blocks B cell receptor-mediated apoptosis and promotes the survival of developing B cells in vivo. PLoS Pathog 2014; 10:e1003916. [PMID: 24516386 PMCID: PMC3916410 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2013] [Accepted: 12/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Gammaherpesviruses such as Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV, HHV-8) establish lifelong latency in their hosts and are associated with the development of several types of malignancies, including a subset of B cell lymphomas. These viruses are thought to co-opt the process of B cell differentiation to latently infect a fraction of circulating memory B cells, resulting in the establishment of a stable latency setpoint. However, little is known about how this infected memory B cell compartment is maintained throughout the life of the host. We have previously demonstrated that immature and transitional B cells are long-term latency reservoirs for murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV68), suggesting that infection of developing B cells contributes to the maintenance of lifelong latency. During hematopoiesis, immature and transitional B cells are subject to B cell receptor (BCR)-mediated negative selection, which results in the clonal deletion of autoreactive B cells. Interestingly, numerous gammaherpesviruses encode homologs of the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2, suggesting that virus inhibition of apoptosis could subvert clonal deletion. To test this, we quantified latency establishment in mice inoculated with MHV68 vBcl-2 mutants. vBcl-2 mutant viruses displayed a marked decrease in the frequency of immature and transitional B cells harboring viral genome, but this attenuation could be rescued by increased host Bcl-2 expression. Conversely, vBcl-2 mutant virus latency in early B cells and mature B cells, which are not targets of negative selection, was remarkably similar to wild-type virus. Finally, in vivo depletion of developing B cells during chronic infection resulted in decreased mature B cell latency, demonstrating a key role for developing B cells in the maintenance of lifelong latency. Collectively, these findings support a model in which gammaherpesvirus latency in circulating mature B cells is sustained in part through the recurrent infection and vBcl-2-mediated survival of developing B cells.
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Coppieters KT, Boettler T, von Herrath M. Virus infections in type 1 diabetes. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2013; 2:a007682. [PMID: 22315719 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a007682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The precise etiology of type 1 diabetes (T1D) is still unknown, but viruses have long been suggested as a potential environmental trigger for the disease. However, despite decades of research, the body of evidence supporting a relationship between viral infections and initiation or acceleration of islet autoimmunity remains largely circumstantial. The most robust association with viruses and T1D involves enterovirus species, of which some strains have the ability to induce or accelerate disease in animal models. Several hypotheses have been formulated to mechanistically explain how viruses may affect islet autoimmunity and β-cell decay. The recent observation that certain viral infections, when encountered at the right time and infectious dose, can prevent autoimmune diabetes illustrates that potential relationships may be more complex than previously thought. Here, we provide a concise summary of data obtained in mouse models and humans, and identify future avenues toward a better characterization of the association between viruses and T1D.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ken T Coppieters
- Center for Type 1 Diabetes Research, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
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18
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Casiraghi C, Horwitz MS. Epstein–Barr virus and autoimmunity: the role of a latent viral infection in multiple sclerosis and systemic lupus erythematosus pathogenesis. Future Virol 2013. [DOI: 10.2217/fvl.12.136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) are both chronic autoimmune diseases with unknown etiology. To date, EBV is the most closely implicated infectious agent to be associated with both MS and SLE. Epidemiological findings show a strong correlation between EBV infection and the risk of developing these diseases. The type and magnitude of both EBV-specific antibodies and T-cell responses produced by MS or SLE patients are dysregulated when compared with healthy cohorts. Despite all these findings, it is still not clear if and how EBV triggers autoimmunity. EBV infects and establishes latency mainly in B cells, but it can also infect other cell types and indirectly influence the activation status of the immune system by stimulating the production of proinflammatory mediators. This could play a role in both MS and SLE pathogenesis. In this review we will summarize recent literature that links EBV infection to SLE and MS, and discuss possible new mechanisms that explain how EBV drives autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Costanza Casiraghi
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, The University British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Marc S Horwitz
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, The University British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
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Zaccone P, Cooke A. Helminth mediated modulation of Type 1 diabetes (T1D). Int J Parasitol 2013; 43:311-8. [PMID: 23291464 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2012.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2012] [Revised: 12/05/2012] [Accepted: 12/07/2012] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Type 1 diabetes is increasing dramatically in incidence in the developed world. While there may be several reasons for this, improved sanitation and public health measures have altered our interactions with certain infectious agents such as helminths. There is increasing interest in the use of helminths or their products to alleviate inflammatory or allergic conditions. Using rodent models of diabetes, it has been possible to explore the therapeutic potential of both live infections as well as helminth-derived products on the development of autoimmunity. This review provides an overview of the findings from animal models and additionally explores the potential for translation to the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Zaccone
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Rd, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
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20
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Ghazarian L, Diana J, Simoni Y, Beaudoin L, Lehuen A. Prevention or acceleration of type 1 diabetes by viruses. Cell Mol Life Sci 2013; 70:239-55. [PMID: 22766971 PMCID: PMC11113684 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-012-1042-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2011] [Revised: 05/22/2012] [Accepted: 05/24/2012] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease characterized by the destruction of insulin-producing pancreatic β-cells. Even though extensive scientific research has yielded important insights into the immune mechanisms involved in pancreatic β-cell destruction, little is known about the events that trigger the autoimmune process. Recent epidemiological and experimental data suggest that environmental factors are involved in this process. In this review, we discuss the role of viruses as an environmental factor on the development of type 1 diabetes, and the immune mechanisms by which they can trigger or protect against this pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liana Ghazarian
- Hôpital Saint Vincent de Paul/Cochin, Batiment Petit, 82 Avenue Denfert-Rochereau, 75014 Paris, France
| | - Julien Diana
- Hôpital Saint Vincent de Paul/Cochin, Batiment Petit, 82 Avenue Denfert-Rochereau, 75014 Paris, France
| | - Yannick Simoni
- Hôpital Saint Vincent de Paul/Cochin, Batiment Petit, 82 Avenue Denfert-Rochereau, 75014 Paris, France
| | - Lucie Beaudoin
- Hôpital Saint Vincent de Paul/Cochin, Batiment Petit, 82 Avenue Denfert-Rochereau, 75014 Paris, France
| | - Agnès Lehuen
- Hôpital Saint Vincent de Paul/Cochin, Batiment Petit, 82 Avenue Denfert-Rochereau, 75014 Paris, France
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Abstract
The increasing incidence of type 1 diabetes (T1D) and autoimmune diseases in industrialized countries cannot be exclusively explained by genetic factors. Human epidemiological studies and animal experimental data provide accumulating evidence for the role of environmental factors, such as infections, in the regulation of allergy and autoimmune diseases. The hygiene hypothesis has formally provided a rationale for these observations, suggesting that our co-evolution with pathogens has contributed to the shaping of the present-day human immune system. Therefore, improved sanitation, together with infection control, has removed immunoregulatory mechanisms on which our immune system may depend. Helminths are multicellular organisms that have developed a wide range of strategies to manipulate the host immune system to survive and complete their reproductive cycles successfully. Immunity to helminths involves profound changes in both the innate and adaptive immune compartments, which can have a protective effect in inflammation and autoimmunity. Recently, helminth-derived antigens and molecules have been tested in vitro and in vivo to explore possible applications in the treatment of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, including T1D. This exciting approach presents numerous challenges that will need to be addressed before it can reach safe clinical application. This review outlines basic insight into the ability of helminths to modulate the onset and progression of T1D, and frames some of the challenges that helminth-derived therapies may face in the context of clinical translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Zaccone
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Rd, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
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22
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Getahun A, Smith MJ, Kogut I, van Dyk LF, Cambier JC. Retention of anergy and inhibition of antibody responses during acute γ herpesvirus 68 infection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 189:2965-74. [PMID: 22904300 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1201407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The majority of the human population becomes infected early in life by the gammaherpesvirus EBV. Some findings suggest that there is an association between EBV infection and the appearance of pathogenic Abs found in lupus. Gammaherpesvirus 68 infection of adult mice (an EBV model) was shown to induce polyclonal B cell activation and hypergammaglobulinemia, as well as increased production of autoantibodies. In this study, we explored the possibility that this breach of tolerance reflects loss of B cell anergy. Our findings show that, although anergic B cells transiently acquire an activated phenotype early during infection, they do not become responsive to autoantigen, as measured by the ability to mobilize Ca2+ following AgR cross-linking or mount Ab responses following immunization. Indeed, naive B cells also acquire an activated phenotype during acute infection but are unable to mount Ab responses to either T cell-dependent or T cell-independent Ags. In acutely infected animals, Ag stimulation leads to upregulation of costimulatory molecules and relocalization of Ag-specific B cells to the B-T cell border; however, these cells do not proliferate or differentiate into Ab-secreting cells. Adoptive-transfer experiments show that the suppressed state is reversible and is dictated by the environment in the infected host. Finally, B cells in infected mice deficient of CD4+ T cells are not suppressed, suggesting a role for CD4+ T cells in enforcing unresponsiveness. Thus, rather than promoting loss of tolerance, gammaherpesvirus 68 infection induces an immunosuppressed state, reminiscent of compensatory anti-inflammatory response syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Getahun
- Integrated Department of Immunology, University of Colorado School of Medicine and National Jewish Health, Denver, CO 80206, USA
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23
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Murine gammaherpesvirus 68 infection protects lupus-prone mice from the development of autoimmunity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:E1092-100. [PMID: 22474381 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1203019109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Gammaherpesvirus infections, such as those caused by EBV, have been suggested to promote the development of autoimmunity. To test this idea, we infected healthy WT and lupus-prone B6.Sle123 mice with an EBV-related and rodent-specific gammaherpesvirus, γHV68. Although acute γHV68 infection increased autoantibody levels for 4 to 6 wk, latent infection inhibited these responses for 1 y. The inhibition of autoantibody expression was only observed in B6.Sle123 females and not in males, which already displayed lower autoantibody titers. Contrary to the initial hypothesis, infection of young B6.Sle123 mice, both male and female, resulted in suppression of lymphoid activation and expansion and of glomerular inflammation and sclerosis, preserving kidney function. Moreover, γHV68 infection led to reduced autoantibody titers, lymphoid activation, and glomerular inflammation whether lupus-prone females were infected before or during disease manifestation. Finally, γHV68 infection also inhibited autoantibody production in the genetically distinct MRL/lpr lupus-prone mice. Our findings indicate that γHV68 infection strongly inhibits the development and progression of lupus-like disease in mice that spontaneously develop this condition mediating its beneficial effects at the humoral, cellular, and organ levels. The mechanisms by which the virus exerts this down-modulatory action are not yet clear, but appear to operate via reduced activation of dendritic cells, T cells, and B cells. Gammaherpesviruses coevolved with the vertebrate immune systems, establishing lifelong infections in humans and other mammals. Our findings that γHV68 infection prevents rather than exacerbates autoimmunity in mice suggest that infection with gammaherpesviruses may be protective rather than pathological in most individuals.
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Wang Y, Swiecki M, McCartney SA, Colonna M. dsRNA sensors and plasmacytoid dendritic cells in host defense and autoimmunity. Immunol Rev 2011; 243:74-90. [PMID: 21884168 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-065x.2011.01049.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The innate immune system detects viruses through molecular sensors that trigger the production of type I interferons (IFN-I) and inflammatory cytokines. As viruses vary tremendously in size, structure, genomic composition, and tissue tropism, multiple sensors are required to detect their presence in various cell types and tissues. In this review, we summarize current knowledge of the diversity, specificity, and signaling pathways downstream of viral sensors and ask whether two distinct sensors that recognize the same viral component are complementary, compensatory, or simply redundant. We also discuss why viral sensors are differentially distributed in distinct cell types and whether a particular cell type dominates the IFN-I response during viral infection. Finally, we review evidence suggesting that inappropriate signaling through viral sensors may induce autoimmunity. The picture emerging from these studies is that disparate viral sensors in different cell types form a dynamic and integrated molecular network that can be exploited for improving vaccination and therapeutic strategies for infectious and autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaming Wang
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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25
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Newland SA, Phillips JM, Mastroeni P, Azuma M, Zaccone P, Cooke A. PD-L1 blockade overrides Salmonella typhimurium-mediated diabetes prevention in NOD mice: no role for Tregs. Eur J Immunol 2011; 41:2966-76. [PMID: 21792877 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201141544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2011] [Revised: 05/31/2011] [Accepted: 07/12/2011] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Increasingly, evidence suggests that there is a strong environmental component to the development of the autoimmune disease type 1 diabetes. Our previous data showed that NOD mice are protected from developing diabetes after infection with Salmonella typhimurium and there is some evidence that changes within the DC compartment play a crucial role in this protective effect. This paper further characterises this Salmonella-modulated protective phenotype. We find that, contrary to other infection-mediated models of type 1 diabetes protection, there was no expansion of Foxp3(+) Tregs. Furthermore, transcriptome analysis of DCs identified a distinct Salmonella-induced signature in which the inhibitory receptor PD-L1 was up-regulated. This was confirmed by flow cytometry. In vivo blockade of the PD1/PD-L1 interaction was found to ablate the protective function of Salmonella infection. These data provide evidence for a novel regulatory DC phenotype proficient at controlling autoreactive T cells for an extended duration in the NOD mouse model of diabetes.
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26
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Swiecki M, McCartney SA, Wang Y, Colonna M. TLR7/9 versus TLR3/MDA5 signaling during virus infections and diabetes. J Leukoc Biol 2011; 90:691-701. [PMID: 21844166 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0311166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
IFN-I are pleiotropic cytokines that impact innate and adaptive immune responses. In this article, we discuss TLR7/9 versus TLR3/MDA5 signaling in antiviral responses and diabetes. pDCs are thought to have a critical role in antiviral defense because of their ability to rapidly secrete large amounts of IFN-I through TLR7/9 signaling. A recent study demonstrates that although pDCs are a source of IFN-I in vivo, their overall contribution to viral containment is limited and time-dependent, such that additional cellular sources of IFN-I are required to fully control viral infections. dsRNA sensors, such as TLR3 and MDA5, provide another important trigger for antiviral IFN-I responses, which can be exploited to enhance immune responses to vaccines. In the absence of infection, IFN-I production by pDCs or from signaling through dsRNA sensors has been implicated in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases such as diabetes. However, recent data demonstrate that IFN-I production via TLR3 and MDA5 is critical to counter diabetes caused by a virus with preferential tropism for pancreatic β-cells. This highlights the complexity of the host antiviral response and how multiple cellular and molecular components balance protective versus pathological responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Swiecki
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA
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27
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Barton E, Mandal P, Speck SH. Pathogenesis and host control of gammaherpesviruses: lessons from the mouse. Annu Rev Immunol 2011; 29:351-97. [PMID: 21219186 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-immunol-072710-081639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 192] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Gammaherpesviruses are lymphotropic viruses that are associated with the development of lymphoproliferative diseases, lymphomas, as well as other nonlymphoid cancers. Most known gammaherpesviruses establish latency in B lymphocytes. Research on Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV68/γHV68/MHV4) has revealed a complex relationship between virus latency and the stage of B cell differentiation. Available data support a model in which gammaherpesvirus infection drives B cell proliferation and differentiation. In general, the characterized gammaherpesviruses exhibit a very narrow host tropism, which has severely limited studies on the human gammaherpesviruses EBV and Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus. As such, there has been significant interest in developing animal models in which the pathogenesis of gammaherpesviruses can be characterized. MHV68 represents a unique model to define the effects of chronic viral infection on the antiviral immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik Barton
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, USA
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29
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Abstract
The development of type 1 diabetes involves a complex interaction between pancreatic beta-cells and cells of both the innate and adaptive immune systems. Analyses of the interactions between natural killer (NK) cells, NKT cells, different dendritic cell populations and T cells have highlighted how these different cell populations can influence the onset of autoimmunity. There is evidence that infection can have either a potentiating or inhibitory role in the development of type 1 diabetes. Interactions between pathogens and cells of the innate immune system, and how this can influence whether T cell activation or tolerance occurs, have been under close scrutiny in recent years. This Review focuses on the nature of this crosstalk between the innate and the adaptive immune responses and how pathogens influence the process.
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30
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Zipris D. Toll-like receptors and type 1 diabetes. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2010; 654:585-610. [PMID: 20217515 DOI: 10.1007/978-90-481-3271-3_25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is an autoimmune disease that results in the progressive loss of insulin producing cells. Studies performed in humans with T1D and animal models of the disease over the past two decades have suggested a key role for the adaptive immune system in disease mechanisms. The role of the innate immune system in triggering T1D was shown only recently. Research in this area was greatly facilitated by the discovery of toll-like receptors (TLRs) that were found to be a key component of the innate immune system that detect microbial infections and initiate antimicrobial host defense responses. New data indicate that in some situations, the innate immune system is associated with mechanisms triggering autoimmune diabetes. In fact, studies preformed in the BioBreeding Diabetes Resistant (BBDR) and LEW1.WR1 rat models of T1D demonstrate that virus infection leads to islet destruction via mechanisms that may involve TLR9-induced innate immune system activation. Data from these studies also show that TLR upregulation can synergize with virus infection to dramatically increase disease penetrance. Reports from murine models of T1D implicate both MyD88-dependent and MyD88-independent pathways in the course of disease. The new knowledge about the role of innate immune pathways in triggering islet destruction could lead to the discovery of new molecules that may be targeted for disease prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danny Zipris
- Barbara Davis Center for Childhood Diabetes, University of Colorado, Aurora, CO 80045, USA.
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31
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Helminth infection can reduce insulitis and type 1 diabetes through CD25- and IL-10-independent mechanisms. Infect Immun 2009; 77:5347-58. [PMID: 19752032 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01170-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Parasitic helminth infection has been shown to modulate pathological inflammatory responses in allergy and autoimmune disease. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of infection with a helminth parasite, Heligmosomoides polygyrus, on type 1 diabetes (T1D) in nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice and to elucidate the mechanisms involved in this protection. H. polygyrus inoculation at 5 weeks of age protected NOD mice from T1D until 40 weeks of age and also inhibited the more aggressive cyclophosphamide-induced T1D. Moreover, H. polygyrus inoculation as late as 12 weeks of age reduced the onset of T1D in NOD mice. Following H. polygyrus inoculation of NOD mice, pancreatic insulitis was markedly inhibited. Interleukin-4 (IL-4), IL-10, and IL-13 expression and the frequency of CD4(+) CD25(+) FoxP3(+) regulatory T cells were elevated in mesenteric and pancreatic lymph nodes. Depletion of CD4(+) CD25(+) T cells in vivo did not abrogate H. polygyrus-induced T1D protection, nor did anti-IL-10 receptor blocking antibody. These findings suggest that infection with H. polygyrus significantly inhibits T1D in NOD mice through CD25- and IL-10-independent mechanisms and also reduces the severity of T1D when administered late after the onset of insulitis.
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Abstract
Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is a T cell-mediated autoimmune disease in which the insulin producing beta cells are destroyed. Antigen-based immunotherapy provides an approach to selectively tolerize pathogenic beta cell-specific T cells, while leaving the remainder of the immune system intact. In this article, we discuss our group's experience in defining the parameters that impact the efficacy of beta cell antigen "vaccination" for the prevention and treatment of T1D.
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Cooke A. Review series on helminths, immune modulation and the hygiene hypothesis: how might infection modulate the onset of type 1 diabetes? Immunology 2009; 126:12-7. [PMID: 19120494 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2008.03009.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of type 1 diabetes is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. The current rise in the incidence of diabetes is occurring more rapidly than can be accounted for by genetic change, highlighting the influence of environmental modifiers. Considerable effort has been expended to identify infectious agents that might be responsible for this rise in incidence, but no single infectious agent has been linked to this dramatic increase in type 1 diabetes. There has been increasing interest in the possibility that infections of historical importance that might have shaped our immune systems over evolutionary time may also have played a role in down-modulating some autoimmune and allergic disorders. In this review, some of the ways in which certain organisms might have influenced the onset of autoimmunity are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Cooke
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
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Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) recognize molecular patterns relating to a variety of microbial infections. Stimulation through TLRs leads to activation of antigen-presenting cells, production of inflammatory cytokines creating inflammation, and production of type 1 interferons (IFNs) that include IFN-alpha and -beta, and exerts direct effects on regulatory cells. These effects can direct the immune response, dealing with the immediate problems of infection and activating more specific responses of the adaptive immune system. However, it has recently been recognized that these receptors may recognize endogenous ligands that include DNA, RNA, and proteins that arise from cellular stress. This may have an effect on autoimmune responses in a number of ways, both activating and inhibitory. The means by which infection or endogenous stimuli through TLRs may influence autoimmunity will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Susan Wong
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, School of Medical Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.
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35
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Zipris D. Epidemiology of type 1 diabetes and what animal models teach us about the role of viruses in disease mechanisms. Clin Immunol 2009; 131:11-23. [PMID: 19185542 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2008.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2008] [Revised: 12/23/2008] [Accepted: 12/23/2008] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
There is a consensus among epidemiologists that the worldwide incidence rate of type 1 diabetes has been rising in recent decades. The cause of this rise is unknown, but epidemiological studies suggest the involvement of environmental factors, and viral infections in particular. Data demonstrating a cause-and-effect relationship between microbial infections and type 1 diabetes and how viruses may cause disease in humans are currently lacking. However, new evidence from animal models supports the hypothesis that viruses induce disease via mechanisms linked with innate immune upregulation. In the BioBreeding Diabetes Resistant rat, infection with a parvovirus induces islet destruction via upregulation of the toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) signaling pathway. Data from mouse models of diabetes implicate TLR2, TLR3, and TLR7 in the disease process. Understanding the link between environmental agents and innate immune pathways involved in early stages of diabetes may advance the design of immune interventions to prevent disease in genetically susceptible individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danny Zipris
- Department of Pediatrics, Barbara Davis Center for Childhood Diabetes, University of Colorado, Aurora, CO 80045-6511, USA.
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von Herrath M. Can we learn from viruses how to prevent type 1 diabetes?: the role of viral infections in the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes and the development of novel combination therapies. Diabetes 2009; 58:2-11. [PMID: 19114721 PMCID: PMC2606872 DOI: 10.2337/db08-9027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
We will take a journey from basic pathogenetic mechanisms elicited by viral infections that play a role in the development of type 1 diabetes to clinical interventions, where we will discuss novel combination therapies. The role of viral infections in the development of type 1 diabetes is a rather interesting topic because in experimental models viruses appear capable of both accelerating as well as decelerating the immunological processes leading to type 1 diabetes. Consequently, I will discuss some of the underlying mechanisms for each situation and consider methods to investigate the proposed dichotomy for the involvement of viruses in human type 1 diabetes. Prevention of type 1 diabetes by infection supports the so-called "hygiene hypothesis." Interestingly, viruses invoke mechanisms that need to be exploited by novel combinatorial immune-based interventions, the first one being the elimination of autoaggressive T-cells attacking the beta-cells, ultimately leading to their immediate but temporally limited amelioration. The other is the invigoration of regulatory T-cells (Tregs), which can mediate long-term tolerance to beta-cell proteins in the pancreatic islets and draining lymph nodes. In combination, these two immune elements have the potential to permanently stop type 1 diabetes. It is my belief that only combination therapies will enable the permanent prevention and curing of type 1 diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias von Herrath
- Diabetes Center, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, California, USA.
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Abstract
The development of some autoimmune diseases is increasing in the developed world faster than can be accounted for by genetic change. The development of these autoimmune diseases, such as Type 1 diabetes, is known to be influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. Environmental factors which have been considered to play a role include infectious agents such as viruses or bacteria. The search for a common initiating infection in the aetiology of Type 1 diabetes as proved thus far inconclusive. An alternative way of considering a role for infection is that infection may have historically prevented the development of autoimmune disease. In the developing world changes have occurred such that many chronic infections have been eliminated and this may have led to the emergence of autoimmune pathology. Evidence in support of this hypothesis is considered here and factors governing the development of autoimmunity compared with those which might have influenced the development of childhood leukaemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Cooke
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, UK.
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Wang B, Tisch R. Parameters influencing antigen-specific immunotherapy for type 1 diabetes. Immunol Res 2008; 41:175-87. [DOI: 10.1007/s12026-008-8020-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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