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Ruytinx P, Vandormael P, Quaden D, Luyten E, Geusens P, Vanhoof J, Agten A, Vandenabeele F, de Vlam K, Somers V. Antibodies of the immunoglobulin a isotype to novel antigens in early axial spondyloarthritis. Front Med (Lausanne) 2023; 9:1072453. [PMID: 36844956 PMCID: PMC9945964 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2022.1072453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 12/29/2022] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction There is an unmet need for biomarkers to identify patients with axial spondyloarthritis (axSpA). Increasing evidence suggest the presence of autoantibodies in a subset of axSpA patients. The aim of this study was to identify novel IgA antibodies in early axSpA patients and to determine their diagnostic potential in combination with previously determined IgG antibodies against UH (Hasselt University)-axSpA-IgG antigens. Methods An axSpA cDNA phage display library constructed from axSpA hip synovium, was used to screen for novel IgA antibodies in plasma from early axSpA patients. The presence of these antibodies against novel UH-axSpA-IgA antigens was determined in two independent axSpA cohorts, in healthy controls and in patients with chronic low back pain. Results We identified antibodies to 7 novel UH-axSpA-IgA antigens, of which 6 correspond to non-physiological peptides and 1 to the human histone deacetylase 3 (HDAC3) protein. IgA antibodies against 2 of these 7 novel UH-axSpA-IgA antigens and IgG antibodies against 2 of the previously identified antigens were significantly more present in early axSpA patients from the UH cohort (18/70, 25.7%) and the (Bio)SPAR cohort (26/164, 15.9%), compared to controls with chronic low back pain (2/66, 3%). Antibodies to this panel of 4 antigens were present in 21.1% (30/142) of patients with early axSpA from the UH and (Bio)SPAR cohorts. The positive likelihood ratio for confirming early axSpA using antibodies to these 4 UH-axSpA antigens was 7.0. So far, no clinical correlation between the novel identified IgA antibodies and inflammatory bowel disease could be identified. Discussion In conclusion, screening an axSpA cDNA phage display library for IgA reactivity resulted in the identification of 7 novel UH-axSpA-IgA antigens, of which 2 show promising biomarker potential for the diagnosis of a subset of axSpA patients, in combination with previously identified UH-axSpA-IgG antigens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pieter Ruytinx
- UHasselt, Department of Immunology and Infection, Biomedical Research Institute, Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Patrick Vandormael
- UHasselt, Department of Immunology and Infection, Biomedical Research Institute, Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Dana Quaden
- UHasselt, Department of Immunology and Infection, Biomedical Research Institute, Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Elien Luyten
- UHasselt, Department of Immunology and Infection, Biomedical Research Institute, Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Piet Geusens
- ReumaClinic, Genk, Belgium,Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | | | - Anouk Agten
- UHasselt, Faculty of Rehabilitation Sciences, REVAL-Rehabilitation Research Center, Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Frank Vandenabeele
- UHasselt, Faculty of Rehabilitation Sciences, REVAL-Rehabilitation Research Center, Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Kurt de Vlam
- Department of Rheumatology, University Hospitals Leuven, Leuven, Belgium,Department of Development and Regeneration, Skeletal Biology and Engineering Research Center (SBE), Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Veerle Somers
- UHasselt, Department of Immunology and Infection, Biomedical Research Institute, Diepenbeek, Belgium,*Correspondence: Veerle Somers,
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Mazón-Cabrera R, Liesenborgs J, Brône B, Vandormael P, Somers V. Novel maternal autoantibodies in autism spectrum disorder: Implications for screening and diagnosis. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1067833. [PMID: 36816132 PMCID: PMC9932693 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1067833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 01/09/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder for which early recognition is a major challenge. Autoantibodies against fetal brain antigens have been found in the blood of mothers of children with ASD (m-ASD) and can be transferred to the fetus where they can impact neurodevelopment by binding to fetal brain proteins. This study aims to identify novel maternal autoantibodies reactive against human fetal brain antigens, and explore their use as biomarkers for ASD screening and diagnosis. Methods A custom-made human fetal brain cDNA phage display library was constructed, and screened for antibody reactivity in m-ASD samples from the Simons Simplex Collection (SSC) of the Simons Foundation Autism Research Initiative (SFARI). Antibody reactivity against 6 identified antigens was determined in plasma samples of 238 m-ASD and 90 mothers with typically developing children (m-TD). Results We identified antibodies to 6 novel University Hasselt (UH)-ASD antigens, including three novel m-ASD autoantigens, i.e., ribosomal protein L23 (RPL23), glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) and calmodulin-regulated spectrin-associated protein 3 (CAMSAP3). Antibody reactivity against a panel of four of these targets was found in 16% of m-ASD samples, compared to 4% in m-TD samples (p = 0.0049). Discussion Maternal antibodies against 4 UH-ASD antigens could therefore provide a novel tool to support the diagnosis of ASD in a subset of individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rut Mazón-Cabrera
- Department of Immunology and Infection, Biomedical Research Institute, UHasselt, Transnational University Limburg, Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Jori Liesenborgs
- Expertise Centre for Digital Media, UHasselt, Transnational University Limburg, Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Bert Brône
- Department of Neurosciences, Biomedical Research Institute, UHasselt, Transnational University Limburg, Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Patrick Vandormael
- Department of Immunology and Infection, Biomedical Research Institute, UHasselt, Transnational University Limburg, Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Veerle Somers
- Department of Immunology and Infection, Biomedical Research Institute, UHasselt, Transnational University Limburg, Diepenbeek, Belgium,*Correspondence: Veerle Somers,
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3
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Quaden D, Vandormael P, Ruytinx P, Geusens P, Corten K, Vanhoof J, Liesenborgs J, van Reeth F, Agten A, Vandenabeele F, de Vlam K, Somers V. Antibodies Against Three Novel Peptides in Early Axial Spondyloarthritis Patients From Two Independent Cohorts. Arthritis Rheumatol 2020; 72:2094-2105. [PMID: 32638516 DOI: 10.1002/art.41427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study was undertaken to identify novel autoantibodies in axial spondyloarthritis (SpA) and determine their diagnostic potential in patients with early axial SpA and controls from 2 independent cohorts. METHODS An axial SpA complementary DNA phage display library was used to screen for novel IgG antibodies in plasma from patients with early axial SpA. The presence of these antibodies against novel peptides (i.e., peptides identified in an early axial SpA cohort from Hasselt University, designated UH-axSpA) was determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in 76 patients with early axial SpA, 75 controls with nonspecific chronic low back pain, 60 patients with rheumatoid arthritis, and 94 healthy controls from the UH cohort. Antibody reactivity to these novel peptides was further validated in 174 patients with axial SpA (of whom 79 had early axial SpA) from the University Hospitals Leuven (Bio)SPAR (Spondyloarthritis [Biologics]) cohort. RESULTS We identified antibodies to 9 novel UH-axSpA peptides, corresponding to randomly formed peptides and to a novel axial SpA autoantigen, double homeobox protein 4. Antibodies to 3 UH-axSpA peptides with the highest positive likelihood ratio (LR) for a diagnosis of axial SpA were present in significantly more patients with early axial SpA from the UH and (Bio)SPAR cohorts (14.2% [22/155]) compared to controls with chronic low back pain (5% [4/75]), resulting in 95% specificity. The positive LR for confirming axial SpA using antibodies to these 3 UH-axSpA peptides was 2.7, which is higher than the LR obtained with the currently used laboratory marker C-reactive protein. Testing for antibodies to these 3 UH-axSpA peptides in patients with chronic low back pain increased the posttest probability of a diagnosis of axial SpA from 79% to 91%. CONCLUSION Antibodies to 3 UH-axSpA peptides could provide a novel tool in the diagnosis of a subset of axial SpA patients.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Piet Geusens
- UH, Hasselt, Belgium and ReumaClinic, Genk, Belgium, and Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands
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4
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De Bondt M, Hellings N, Opdenakker G, Struyf S. Neutrophils: Underestimated Players in the Pathogenesis of Multiple Sclerosis (MS). Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E4558. [PMID: 32604901 PMCID: PMC7349048 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21124558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2020] [Revised: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Neutrophils are the most abundant circulating and first-responding innate myeloid cells and have so far been underestimated in the context of multiple sclerosis (MS). MS is the most frequent, immune-mediated, inflammatory disease of the central nervous system. MS is treatable but not curable and its cause(s) and pathogenesis remain elusive. The involvement of neutrophils in MS pathogenesis has been suggested by the use of preclinical animal disease models, as well as on the basis of patient sample analysis. In this review, we provide an overview of the possible mechanisms and functions by which neutrophils may contribute to the development and pathology of MS. Neutrophils display a broad variety of effector functions enabling disease pathogenesis, including (1) the release of inflammatory mediators and enzymes, such as interleukin-1β, myeloperoxidase and various proteinases, (2) destruction and phagocytosis of myelin (as debris), (3) release of neutrophil extracellular traps, (4) production of reactive oxygen species, (5) breakdown of the blood-brain barrier and (6) generation and presentation of autoantigens. An important question relates to the issue of whether neutrophils exhibit a predominantly proinflammatory function or are also implicated in the resolution of chronic inflammatory responses in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirre De Bondt
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute for Medical Research, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49—Box 1042, 3000 Leuven, Belgium;
- Neuro Immune Connections & Repair Lab, Department of Immunology and Infection, Biomedical Research Institute, Hasselt University, Martelarenlaan 42, 3500 Hasselt, Belgium;
| | - Niels Hellings
- Neuro Immune Connections & Repair Lab, Department of Immunology and Infection, Biomedical Research Institute, Hasselt University, Martelarenlaan 42, 3500 Hasselt, Belgium;
| | - Ghislain Opdenakker
- Laboratory of Immunobiology, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute for Medical Research, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49—Box 1044, 3000 Leuven, Belgium;
| | - Sofie Struyf
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute for Medical Research, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49—Box 1042, 3000 Leuven, Belgium;
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5
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Gharibi T, Babaloo Z, Hosseini A, Marofi F, Ebrahimi-Kalan A, Jahandideh S, Baradaran B. The role of B cells in the immunopathogenesis of multiple sclerosis. Immunology 2020; 160:325-335. [PMID: 32249925 DOI: 10.1111/imm.13198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2019] [Revised: 03/01/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
There is ongoing debate on how B cells contribute to the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS). The success of B-cell targeting therapies in MS highlighted the role of B cells, particularly the antibody-independent functions of these cells such as antigen presentation to T cells and modulation of the function of T cells and myeloid cells by secreting pathogenic and/or protective cytokines in the central nervous system. Here, we discuss the role of different antibody-dependent and antibody-independent functions of B cells in MS disease activity and progression proposing new therapeutic strategies for the optimization of B-cell targeting treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tohid Gharibi
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Neuroscience Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Department of Neurosciences and Cognition, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Student Research Committee, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Zohreh Babaloo
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Arezoo Hosseini
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Neuroscience Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Department of Neurosciences and Cognition, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Faroogh Marofi
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Abbas Ebrahimi-Kalan
- Neuroscience Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Department of Neurosciences and Cognition, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Saeed Jahandideh
- Department of Biochemistry, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Behzad Baradaran
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
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Moritz CP, Paul S, Stoevesandt O, Tholance Y, Camdessanché JP, Antoine JC. Autoantigenomics: Holistic characterization of autoantigen repertoires for a better understanding of autoimmune diseases. Autoimmun Rev 2020; 19:102450. [DOI: 10.1016/j.autrev.2019.102450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2019] [Accepted: 10/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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7
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Frietze KM, Core SB, Linville A, Chackerian B, Peabody DS. Assessing Antibody Specificity in Human Serum Using Deep Sequence-Coupled Biopanning. Methods Mol Biol 2020; 2070:157-171. [PMID: 31625095 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-9853-1_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Affinity selection using phage-display technologies is a powerful tool for identifying the peptide epitopes of monoclonal antibodies. Coupling affinity selection with deep sequencing technologies allows for the broad assessment of selectant populations. Here, we describe a method for using a phage-display platform to assess antibody specificity in human serum. We describe the method with reference to the bacteriophage MS2 virus-like particle (VLP) platform, but it can be adapted to other phage-display technologies as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn M Frietze
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of New Mexico Health Sciences, Albuquerque, NM, USA.
- Clinical and Translational Science Center, University of New Mexico Health Sciences, Albuquerque, NM, USA.
| | - Susan B Core
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of New Mexico Health Sciences, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Alexandria Linville
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of New Mexico Health Sciences, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Bryce Chackerian
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of New Mexico Health Sciences, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - David S Peabody
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of New Mexico Health Sciences, Albuquerque, NM, USA
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8
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Cortini A, Bembich S, Marson L, Cocco E, Edomi P. Identification of novel non-myelin biomarkers in multiple sclerosis using an improved phage-display approach. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0226162. [PMID: 31805175 PMCID: PMC6894809 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0226162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2019] [Accepted: 11/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the etiology of multiple sclerosis is not yet understood, it is accepted that its pathogenesis involves both autoimmune and neurodegenerative processes, in which the role of autoreactive T-cells has been elucidated. Instead, the contribution of humoral response is still unclear, even if the presence of intrathecal antibodies and B-cells follicle-like structures in meninges of patients has been demonstrated. Several myelin and non-myelin antigens have been identified, but none has been validated as humoral biomarker. In particular autoantibodies against myelin proteins have been found also in healthy individuals, whereas non-myelin antigens have been implicated in neurodegenerative phase of the disease. To provide further putative autoantigens of multiple sclerosis, we investigated the antigen specificity of immunoglobulins present both in sera and in cerebrospinal fluid of patients using phage display technology in a new improved format. A human brain cDNA phage display library was constructed and enriched for open-read-frame fragments. This library was selected against pooled and purified immunoglobulins from cerebrospinal fluid and sera of multiple sclerosis patients. The antigen library was also screened against an antibody scFv library obtained from RNA of B cells purified from the cerebrospinal fluid of two relapsing remitting patients. From all biopanning a complex of 14 antigens were identified; in particular, one of these antigens, corresponding to DDX24 protein, was present in all selections. The ability of more frequently isolated antigens to discriminate between sera from patients with multiple sclerosis or other neurological diseases was investigated. The more promising novel candidate autoantigens were DDX24 and TCERG1. Both are implicated in RNA modification and regulation which can be altered in neurodegenerative processes. Therefore, we propose that they could be a marker of a particular disease activity state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Cortini
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy
| | - Sara Bembich
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy
| | - Lorena Marson
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy
| | - Eleonora Cocco
- Multiple Sclerosis Center, University of Cagliari/ATS Sardegna, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Paolo Edomi
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy
- * E-mail:
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9
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Duffy SS, Keating BA, Moalem-Taylor G. Adoptive Transfer of Regulatory T Cells as a Promising Immunotherapy for the Treatment of Multiple Sclerosis. Front Neurosci 2019; 13:1107. [PMID: 31680840 PMCID: PMC6803619 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.01107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2019] [Accepted: 10/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Samuel S Duffy
- School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, UNSW Sydney, Kensington, NSW, Australia
| | - Brooke A Keating
- School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, UNSW Sydney, Kensington, NSW, Australia
| | - Gila Moalem-Taylor
- School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, UNSW Sydney, Kensington, NSW, Australia
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10
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Ten Berge JC, Schreurs MW, van Rosmalen J, Rothova A. Autoantibody profiling in intraocular fluid of patients with uveitis. Exp Eye Res 2018; 176:141-146. [PMID: 30006272 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2018.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2018] [Revised: 06/13/2018] [Accepted: 07/09/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
A high prevalence of serum antiretinal antibodies (ARAs) in patients with uveitis has been previously described, though their clinical role remains elusive. Assessment of intraocular ARAs may provide further insight into the pathogenesis of diverse uveitis entities. In this study we investigate the prevalence of multiple specific anti-ocular antibodies (AOcAs), including ARAs, in intraocular fluid of patients with uveitis. Autoantibody profiling with 188 different ocular antigens was performed by a multiplex immunoassay with intraocular fluid samples of 76 patients with uveitis. Clinical data from uveitis patients were collected and statistical analyses were executed to evaluate associations between intraocular AOcAs and clinical characteristics. Controls consisted of 19 intraocular fluid samples from cataract patients. A spectrum of 22 different AOcAs was present in higher levels in patients with uveitis than in controls (p < 0.05), but in moderately elevated titers (<2x). High elevations of intraocular AOcAs in uveitis (>5x compared to cataract) were observed in varicella zoster virus-induced uveitis, multiple sclerosis-associated uveitis and patients with unexplained uveitis but positive quantiferon test. Presence of macular edema was associated with increased intraocular levels of tyrosinase antibodies. Our results show that patients with uveitis are characterized by the presence of a broad spectrum of moderately elevated levels of intraocular AOcAs, and high intraocular AOcA levels were found in several specific uveitis entities. This study favors secondary production of AOcAs and not their inciting role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josianne C Ten Berge
- Department of Ophthalmology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Marco Wj Schreurs
- Department of Immunology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Joost van Rosmalen
- Department of Biostatistics, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Aniki Rothova
- Department of Ophthalmology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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Pazhouhandeh M, Sahraian MA, Siadat SD, Fateh A, Vaziri F, Tabrizi F, Ajorloo F, Arshadi AK, Fatemi E, Piri Gavgani S, Mahboudi F, Rahimi Jamnani F. A systems medicine approach reveals disordered immune system and lipid metabolism in multiple sclerosis patients. Clin Exp Immunol 2018; 192:18-32. [PMID: 29194580 DOI: 10.1111/cei.13087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2017] [Revised: 11/19/2017] [Accepted: 11/20/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Identification of autoimmune processes and introduction of new autoantigens involved in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS) can be helpful in the design of new drugs to prevent unresponsiveness and side effects in patients. To find significant changes, we evaluated the autoantibody repertoires in newly diagnosed relapsing-remitting MS patients (NDP) and those receiving disease-modifying therapy (RP). Through a random peptide phage library, a panel of NDP- and RP-specific peptides was identified, producing two protein data sets visualized using Gephi, based on protein--protein interactions in the STRING database. The top modules of NDP and RP networks were assessed using Enrichr. Based on the findings, a set of proteins, including ATP binding cassette subfamily C member 1 (ABCC1), neurogenic locus notch homologue protein 1 (NOTCH1), hepatocyte growth factor receptor (MET), RAF proto-oncogene serine/threonine-protein kinase (RAF1) and proto-oncogene vav (VAV1) was found in NDP and was involved in over-represented terms correlated with cell-mediated immunity and cancer. In contrast, transcription factor RelB (RELB), histone acetyltransferase p300 (EP300), acetyl-CoA carboxylase 2 (ACACB), adiponectin (ADIPOQ) and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase 2 mitochondrial (PCK2) had major contributions to viral infections and lipid metabolism as significant events in RP. According to these findings, further research is required to demonstrate the pathogenic roles of such proteins and autoantibodies targeting them in MS and to develop therapeutic agents which can ameliorate disease severity.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Pazhouhandeh
- Human Antibody Lab, Innovation Center, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - M-A Sahraian
- MS Research Center, Neuroscience Institute, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - S D Siadat
- Human Antibody Lab, Innovation Center, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran.,Department of Mycobacteriology and Pulmonary Research, Microbiology Research Center, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - A Fateh
- Human Antibody Lab, Innovation Center, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran.,Department of Mycobacteriology and Pulmonary Research, Microbiology Research Center, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - F Vaziri
- Human Antibody Lab, Innovation Center, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran.,Department of Mycobacteriology and Pulmonary Research, Microbiology Research Center, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - F Tabrizi
- Human Antibody Lab, Innovation Center, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - F Ajorloo
- Human Antibody Lab, Innovation Center, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran.,Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Islamic Azad University, East Tehran Branch, Tehran, Iran
| | - A K Arshadi
- Human Antibody Lab, Innovation Center, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - E Fatemi
- Biotechnology Research Center, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - S Piri Gavgani
- Human Antibody Lab, Innovation Center, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - F Mahboudi
- Biotechnology Research Center, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - F Rahimi Jamnani
- Human Antibody Lab, Innovation Center, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran.,Department of Mycobacteriology and Pulmonary Research, Microbiology Research Center, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
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12
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Palmers I, Ydens E, Put E, Depreitere B, Bongers-Janssen H, Pickkers P, Hendrix S, Somers V. Antibody profiling identifies novel antigenic targets in spinal cord injury patients. J Neuroinflammation 2016; 13:243. [PMID: 27618915 PMCID: PMC5020527 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-016-0713-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2016] [Accepted: 09/07/2016] [Indexed: 03/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Recent evidence implicates antibody responses as pivotal damaging factors in spinal cord injury (SCI)-induced neuroinflammation. To date, only a limited number of the antibody targets have been uncovered, and the discovery of novel targets with pathologic and clinical relevance still represents a major challenge. Methods In this study, we, therefore, applied an unbiased, innovative and powerful strategy, called serological antigen selection (SAS), to fully identify the complex information present within the antibody repertoire of SCI patients. Results We constructed a high-quality cDNA phage display library derived from human spinal cord tissue to screen for antibody reactivity in pooled plasma samples from traumatic SCI patients (n = 10, identification cohort). By performing SAS, we identified a panel of 19 antigenic targets to which the individual samples of the plasma pool showed antibody reactivity. Sequence analysis to identify the selected antigenic targets uncovered 5 known proteins, to which antibody reactivity has not been associated with SCI before, as well as linear peptides. Immunoreactivity against 9 of the 19 novel identified targets was validated in 41 additional SCI patients and an equal number of age- and gender-matched healthy subjects. Overall, we found elevated antibody levels to at least 1 of the 9 targets in 51 % of our total SCI patient cohort (n = 51) with a specificity of 73 %. By combining 6 of these 9 targets into a panel, an overall reactivity of approximately half of the SCI patients could be maintained while increasing the specificity to 82 %. Conclusions In conclusion, our innovative high-throughput approach resulted in the identification of previously unexplored antigenic targets with elevated immunoreactivity in more than 50 % of the SCI patients. Characterization of the validated antibody responses and their targets will not only provide new insight into the underlying disease processes of SCI pathology but also significantly contribute to uncovering potential antibody biomarkers for SCI patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilse Palmers
- Biomedical Research Institute and transnationale Universiteit Limburg, School of Life Sciences, Hasselt University, Martelarenlaan 42, Hasselt, Belgium
| | - Elke Ydens
- Biomedical Research Institute and transnationale Universiteit Limburg, School of Life Sciences, Hasselt University, Martelarenlaan 42, Hasselt, Belgium
| | - Eric Put
- Department Neurosurgery, Jessa Hospital, Stadsomvaart 11, Hasselt, Belgium
| | - Bart Depreitere
- Division of Experimental Neurosurgery and Neuroanatomy, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven and University Hospitals Leuven, Herestraat 49, Leuven, Belgium
| | | | - Peter Pickkers
- Department of Intensive Care Medicine, Radboud University, Nijmegen Medical Centre, Geert Grooteplein Zuid 10, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Sven Hendrix
- Biomedical Research Institute and transnationale Universiteit Limburg, School of Life Sciences, Hasselt University, Martelarenlaan 42, Hasselt, Belgium
| | - Veerle Somers
- Biomedical Research Institute and transnationale Universiteit Limburg, School of Life Sciences, Hasselt University, Martelarenlaan 42, Hasselt, Belgium.
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13
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Fraussen J, de Bock L, Somers V. B cells and antibodies in progressive multiple sclerosis: Contribution to neurodegeneration and progression. Autoimmun Rev 2016; 15:896-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.autrev.2016.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2016] [Accepted: 06/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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14
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Vandormael P, Verschueren P, De Winter L, Somers V. cDNA phage display for the discovery of theranostic autoantibodies in rheumatoid arthritis. Immunol Res 2016; 65:307-325. [DOI: 10.1007/s12026-016-8839-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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15
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Quaden DHF, De Winter LM, Somers V. Detection of novel diagnostic antibodies in ankylosing spondylitis: An overview. Autoimmun Rev 2016; 15:820-32. [PMID: 27288842 DOI: 10.1016/j.autrev.2016.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2016] [Accepted: 06/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is a debilitating, chronic, rheumatic disease characterized by inflammation and new bone formation resulting in fusion of the spine and sacroiliac joints. Since early treatment is impeded by a delayed diagnosis, it is highly important to find new biomarkers that improve early diagnosis and may also contribute to a better assessment of disease activity, prognosis and therapy response in AS. Because of the absence of rheumatoid factor, AS was long assumed to have a seronegative character and antibodies are thus not considered a hallmark of the disease. However, emerging evidence suggests plasma cells and autoantibodies to be involved in the disease course. In this review, the role of B cells and antibodies in AS is discussed. Furthermore, an overview is provided of antibodies identified in AS up till now, and their diagnostic potential. Many of these antibody responses were based on small study populations and further validation is lacking. Moreover, most were identified by a hypothesis-driven approach and thus limited to antibodies against targets that are already known to be involved in AS pathogenesis. Hence, we propose an unbiased approach to identify novel diagnostic antibodies. The already successfully applied techniques cDNA phage display and serological antigen selection will be used to identify antibodies against both known and new antigen targets in AS plasma. These newly identified antibodies will enhance early diagnosis of AS and provide more insight into the underlying disease pathology, resulting in a more effective treatment strategy and eventually an improved disease outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dana H F Quaden
- Biomedical Research Institute and Transnationale Universiteit Limburg, School of Life Sciences, Hasselt University, Hasselt, Belgium
| | - Liesbeth M De Winter
- Biomedical Research Institute and Transnationale Universiteit Limburg, School of Life Sciences, Hasselt University, Hasselt, Belgium
| | - Veerle Somers
- Biomedical Research Institute and Transnationale Universiteit Limburg, School of Life Sciences, Hasselt University, Hasselt, Belgium.
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16
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The Next Generation of Biomarker Research in Spinal Cord Injury. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 54:1482-1499. [DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-9757-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2015] [Accepted: 01/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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17
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Kulbe JR, Geddes JW. Current status of fluid biomarkers in mild traumatic brain injury. Exp Neurol 2016; 275 Pt 3:334-352. [PMID: 25981889 PMCID: PMC4699183 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2015.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2014] [Revised: 05/05/2015] [Accepted: 05/08/2015] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) affects millions of people annually and is difficult to diagnose. Mild injury is insensitive to conventional imaging techniques and diagnoses are often made using subjective criteria such as self-reported symptoms. Many people who sustain a mTBI develop persistent post-concussive symptoms. Athletes and military personnel are at great risk for repeat injury which can result in second impact syndrome or chronic traumatic encephalopathy. An objective and quantifiable measure, such as a serum biomarker, is needed to aid in mTBI diagnosis, prognosis, return to play/duty assessments, and would further elucidate mTBI pathophysiology. The majority of TBI biomarker research focuses on severe TBI with few studies specific to mild injury. Most studies use a hypothesis-driven approach, screening biofluids for markers known to be associated with TBI pathophysiology. This approach has yielded limited success in identifying markers that can be used clinically, additional candidate biomarkers are needed. Innovative and unbiased methods such as proteomics, microRNA arrays, urinary screens, autoantibody identification and phage display would complement more traditional approaches to aid in the discovery of novel mTBI biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqueline R Kulbe
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40536-0509, USA,; Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40536-0509, USA
| | - James W Geddes
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40536-0509, USA,; Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40536-0509, USA.
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18
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de Bock L, Fraussen J, Villar LM, Álvarez-Cermeño JC, Van Wijmeersch B, van Pesch V, Stinissen P, Somers V. Anti-SPAG16 antibodies in primary progressive multiple sclerosis are associated with an elevated progression index. Eur J Neurol 2015; 23:722-8. [PMID: 26706657 DOI: 10.1111/ene.12925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2015] [Accepted: 11/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Sperm-associated antigen 16 (SPAG16), a sperm protein which is upregulated in reactive astrocytes in multiple sclerosis (MS) lesions, has recently been identified as a novel autoantibody target in MS. The aim of this study was to investigate whether anti-SPAG16 antibody levels differ between MS subtypes (relapsing-remitting, RR; primary or secondary progressive, PP, SP) and whether antibody positivity is associated with clinical characteristics. METHODS Plasma anti-SPAG16 antibody levels were determined by recombinant protein enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in 374 MS patients (274 RRMS, 39 SPMS and 61 PPMS) and 106 healthy controls. RESULTS Significantly elevated anti-SPAG16 antibodies were found in 22% of MS patients with 93% specificity. Anti-SPAG16 seropositivity was associated with an increased Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) in overall MS. A higher proportion of PPMS patients showed anti-SPAG16 antibody reactivity (34%) compared to RRMS (19%) and SPMS (26%), and presented with higher anti-SPAG16 antibody levels. Seropositive PPMS patients had a significantly increased progression index compared to seronegative patients. CONCLUSIONS Anti-SPAG16 antibodies are associated with an increased EDSS in overall MS, indicating that they are linked to a worse MS disease outcome. Moreover, the presence of anti-SPAG16 antibodies may be a biomarker for a more severe disease in PPMS patients, as indicated by an increased progression index.
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Affiliation(s)
- L de Bock
- Biomedical Research Institute and Transnationale Universiteit Limburg, Hasselt University, Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | - J Fraussen
- Biomedical Research Institute and Transnationale Universiteit Limburg, Hasselt University, Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | - L M Villar
- Departments of Neurology and Immunology, Ramón y Cajal Hospital, Madrid, Spain
| | - J C Álvarez-Cermeño
- Departments of Neurology and Immunology, Ramón y Cajal Hospital, Madrid, Spain
| | - B Van Wijmeersch
- Biomedical Research Institute and Transnationale Universiteit Limburg, Hasselt University, Diepenbeek, Belgium.,Multiple Sclerosis and Rehabilitation Center, Overpelt, Belgium
| | - V van Pesch
- Institute of Neurosciences, Neurochemistry Unit, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - P Stinissen
- Biomedical Research Institute and Transnationale Universiteit Limburg, Hasselt University, Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | - V Somers
- Biomedical Research Institute and Transnationale Universiteit Limburg, Hasselt University, Diepenbeek, Belgium
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19
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Häggmark A, Schwenk JM, Nilsson P. Neuroproteomic profiling of human body fluids. Proteomics Clin Appl 2015; 10:485-502. [PMID: 26286680 DOI: 10.1002/prca.201500065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2015] [Revised: 07/17/2015] [Accepted: 08/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Analysis of protein expression and abundance provides a possibility to extend the current knowledge on disease-associated processes and pathways. The human brain is a complex organ and dysfunction or damage can give rise to a variety of neurological diseases. Although many proteins potentially reflecting disease progress are originating from brain, the scarce availability of human tissue material has lead to utilization of body fluids such as cerebrospinal fluid and blood in disease-related research. Within the most common neurological disorders, much effort has been spent on studying the role of a few hallmark proteins in disease pathogenesis but despite extensive investigation, the signatures they provide seem insufficient to fully understand and predict disease progress. In order to expand the view the field of neuroproteomics has lately emerged alongside developing technologies, such as affinity proteomics and mass spectrometry, for multiplexed and high-throughput protein profiling. Here, we provide an overview of how such technologies have been applied to study neurological disease and we also discuss some important considerations concerning discovery of disease-associated profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Häggmark
- Affinity Proteomics, SciLifeLab, School of Biotechnology, KTH - Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jochen M Schwenk
- Affinity Proteomics, SciLifeLab, School of Biotechnology, KTH - Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Peter Nilsson
- Affinity Proteomics, SciLifeLab, School of Biotechnology, KTH - Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
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20
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Stathopoulos P, Alexopoulos H, Dalakas MC. Autoimmune antigenic targets at the node of Ranvier in demyelinating disorders. Nat Rev Neurol 2015; 11:143-56. [DOI: 10.1038/nrneurol.2014.260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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21
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Knevel R, Klein K, Somers K, Ospelt C, Houwing-Duistermaat JJ, van Nies JAB, de Rooy DPC, de Bock L, Kurreeman FAS, Schonkeren J, Stoeken-Rijsbergen G, Helmer Q, van der Linden MPM, Kern M, Manjarrez-Orduno N, Rodriguez-Rodriquez L, Stinissen P, Huizinga TWJ, Toes REM, Gay S, Gregersen PK, Somers V, van der Helm-van Mil AHM. Identification of a genetic variant for joint damage progression in autoantibody-positive rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2014; 73:2038-46. [PMID: 23956247 PMCID: PMC11292588 DOI: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2013-204050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Joint destruction is a hallmark of autoantibody-positive rheumatoid arthritis (RA), though the severity is highly variable between patients. The processes underlying these interindividual differences are incompletely understood. METHODS We performed a genome-wide association study on the radiological progression rate in 384 autoantibody-positive patients with RA. In stage-II 1557 X-rays of 301 Dutch autoantibody-positive patients with RA were studied and in stage-III 861 X-rays of 742 North American autoantibody-positive patients with RA. Sperm-Associated Antigen 16 (SPAG16) expression in RA synovium and fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS) was examined using Real-Time Quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-qPCR) and immunohistochemistry. FLS secrete metalloproteinases that degrade cartilage and bone. SPAG16 genotypes were related to matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-3 and MMP-1 expression by FLS in vitro and MMP-3 production ex vivo. RESULTS A cluster of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) at 2q34, located at SPAG16, associated with the radiological progression rate; rs7607479 reached genome-wide significance. A protective role of rs7607479 was replicated in European and North American patients with RA. Per minor allele, patients had a 0.78-fold (95% CI 0.67 to 0.91) progression rate over 7 years. mRNA and protein expression of SPAG16 in RA synovium and FLS was verified. FLS carrying the minor allele secreted less MMP-3 (p=1.60×10(-2)). Furthermore, patients with RA carrying the minor allele had lower serum levels of MMP-3 (p=4.28×10(-2)). In a multivariate analysis on rs7607479 and MMP-3, only MMP-3 associated with progression (p=2.77×10(-4)), suggesting that the association between SPAG16-rs7607479 and joint damage is mediated via an effect on MMP-3 secretion. CONCLUSIONS Genetic and functional analyses indicate that SPAG16 influences MMP-3 regulation and protects against joint destruction in autoantibody-positive RA. These findings could enhance risk stratification in autoantibody-positive RA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Knevel
- Department of Rheumatology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Kerstin Klein
- Center of Experimental Rheumatology, University Hospital Zurich and Zurich Center of Integrative Human Physiology (ZIHP), Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Klaartje Somers
- Hasselt University, Biomedical Research Institute, Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Caroline Ospelt
- Center of Experimental Rheumatology, University Hospital Zurich and Zurich Center of Integrative Human Physiology (ZIHP), Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Jessica A B van Nies
- Department of Rheumatology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Diederik P C de Rooy
- Department of Rheumatology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Laura de Bock
- Hasselt University, Biomedical Research Institute, Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Fina A S Kurreeman
- Department of Rheumatology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Department of Human Genetics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Joris Schonkeren
- Department of Rheumatology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | | | - Quinta Helmer
- Department of Medical Statistics and Bioinformatics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | | | - Marlena Kern
- Feinstein Institute for Medical Research and North Shore–Long Island Jewish Health System, Manhasset, New York, USA
| | - Nataly Manjarrez-Orduno
- Feinstein Institute for Medical Research and North Shore–Long Island Jewish Health System, Manhasset, New York, USA
| | - Luis Rodriguez-Rodriquez
- Feinstein Institute for Medical Research and North Shore–Long Island Jewish Health System, Manhasset, New York, USA
| | - Piet Stinissen
- Hasselt University, Biomedical Research Institute, Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Tom W J Huizinga
- Department of Rheumatology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Rene E M Toes
- Department of Rheumatology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Steffen Gay
- Center of Experimental Rheumatology, University Hospital Zurich and Zurich Center of Integrative Human Physiology (ZIHP), Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Peter K Gregersen
- Feinstein Institute for Medical Research and North Shore–Long Island Jewish Health System, Manhasset, New York, USA
| | - Veerle Somers
- Hasselt University, Biomedical Research Institute, Diepenbeek, Belgium
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22
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Fraussen J, Claes N, de Bock L, Somers V. Targets of the humoral autoimmune response in multiple sclerosis. Autoimmun Rev 2014; 13:1126-37. [DOI: 10.1016/j.autrev.2014.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2014] [Accepted: 05/27/2014] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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23
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de Bock L, Somers K, Fraussen J, Hendriks JJ, van Horssen J, Rouwette M, Hellings N, Villar LM, Álvarez-Cermeño JC, Espiño M, Hupperts R, Jongen P, Damoiseaux J, Verbeek MM, De Deyn PP, D’hooghe M, Van Wijmeersch B, Stinissen P, Somers V. Sperm-Associated Antigen 16 Is a Novel Target of the Humoral Autoimmune Response in Multiple Sclerosis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 193:2147-56. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1401166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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24
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Schirmer L, Srivastava R, Hemmer B. To look for a needle in a haystack: the search for autoantibodies in multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler 2014; 20:271-9. [DOI: 10.1177/1352458514522104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The search for autoantibodies in multiple sclerosis (MS) has been challenging for the last 3 decades. With the development of new proteomic methods and advances in expression and assay technologies, progress in the identification of MS autoantibodies has been made. A number of MS-specific autoantibodies have been proposed, most of them targeting proteins expressed in oligodendrocytes and along the myelin sheath. In this review, we summarize the status of antibody research in MS and then discuss recent developments and future strategies in defining and characterizing the potential antigenic targets of autoantibodies in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas Schirmer
- Department of Neurology, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, Germany
| | - Rajneesh Srivastava
- Department of Neurology, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, Germany
| | - Bernhard Hemmer
- Department of Neurology, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, Germany
- Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Germany
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25
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Weiss-Ottolenghi Y, Gershoni JM. Profiling the IgOme: meeting the challenge. FEBS Lett 2014; 588:318-25. [PMID: 24239539 PMCID: PMC7094557 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2013.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2013] [Revised: 11/06/2013] [Accepted: 11/06/2013] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The entire repertoire of antibodies in our serum, the IgOme, is a historical record of our past experiences and a reflection of our immune status at any given moment. Understanding the dynamics of the IgOme and how the diversity and specificities of serum antibodies change in response to disease and maintenance of homeostasis can directly impact the ability to design and develop novel vaccines, diagnostics and therapeutics. Here we review both direct and indirect methodologies that are being developed to map the complexity and specificities of the antibodies in polyclonal serum - the IgOme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yael Weiss-Ottolenghi
- Department of Cell Research and Immunology, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Jonathan M Gershoni
- Department of Cell Research and Immunology, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel.
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26
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Reske D, Haupt WF. Use of rituximab in multiple sclerosis: current progress and future perspectives. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2014; 4:573-82. [DOI: 10.1586/1744666x.4.5.573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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27
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Ayoglu B, Häggmark A, Neiman M, Igel U, Uhlén M, Schwenk JM, Nilsson P. Systematic antibody and antigen-based proteomic profiling with microarrays. Expert Rev Mol Diagn 2014; 11:219-34. [DOI: 10.1586/erm.10.110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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28
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D'Angelo S, Mignone F, Deantonio C, Di Niro R, Bordoni R, Marzari R, De Bellis G, Not T, Ferrara F, Bradbury A, Santoro C, Sblattero D. Profiling celiac disease antibody repertoire. Clin Immunol 2013; 148:99-109. [DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2013.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2013] [Revised: 04/09/2013] [Accepted: 04/10/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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29
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Rouwette M, Somers K, Govarts C, De Deyn PP, Hupperts R, Van Wijmeersch B, De Jong BA, Verbeek MM, Van Pesch V, Sindic C, Villar LM, Álvarez-Cermeño JC, Stinissen P, Somers V. Novel cerebrospinal fluid and serum autoantibody targets for clinically isolated syndrome. J Neurochem 2012; 123:568-77. [PMID: 22958230 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.12005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2012] [Revised: 08/29/2012] [Accepted: 09/04/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Limited information is available on the identity of antigens targeted by antibodies present in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of patients with clinically isolated syndrome (CIS). The aim of this study was to identify novel antigens for CIS and investigate their prognostic potential to predict conversion to multiple sclerosis (MS). We applied serological antigen selection (SAS) to identify antigens interacting with antibodies present in the pooled CSF from four CIS patients, who developed MS. Antibody reactivity towards CIS antigens identified by SAS was tested in CSF and serum from patients with CIS (n = 123/n = 108), MS (n = 65/n = 44), and other (inflammatory) neurological diseases (n = 75/n = 38) as well as in healthy control sera (n = 44). Using SAS, a panel of six novel CIS candidate antigens was identified. CSF antibody reactivity was detected in both CIS and relapsing-remitting (RR) MS. Serum reactivity was significantly increased in CIS and RR-MS as compared with controls (p = 0.03). For two antigens, the frequency of antibody-positive patients was higher in CIS patients who converted to MS as compared with CIS patients without conversion. We identified novel CIS antigens to which antibody reactivity was primarily detected in CIS and RR-MS as compared to controls. Possible prognostic potential could be demonstrated for two antigens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myrthe Rouwette
- Hasselt University, Biomedical Research Institute (BIOMED) and transnationale Universiteit Limburg, School of Life Sciences, Diepenbeek, Belgium
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Sullivan MA, Wentworth T, Kobie JJ, Sanz I. Anti-idiotypic monobodies for immune response profiling. Methods 2012; 58:62-8. [PMID: 22819856 PMCID: PMC3491107 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2012.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2011] [Accepted: 07/11/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
A major goal in the study of autoimmune disease is the identification of biomarkers of disease to allow early diagnosis and initiation of treatment. The production of autoantibodies is the key feature of most autoimmune disease, so much effort has focused on characterizing the antigens reactive with these antibodies. However, even for the most well understood autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus, identification of antigens that detect autoantibodies in all patients have yet to be discovered. We describe a novel strategy for deriving mimotopes to disease-specific serum antibodies by selecting anti-idiotypic monobodies from a large molecular diversity library. Monobodies are derived by partial randomization of two surface exposed loops of a fibronectin domain scaffold in a phage display vector. The phage library is selected for binding to serum antibodies using a subtractive panning strategy. We evaluated this strategy by selecting the monobody library on a pool of serum immunoglobulin derived from a group of rheumatoid arthritis patients and evaluated selected clones for multi-patient reactivity and specificity for rheumatoid arthritis. The use of the fibronectin scaffold to derive stable, easy to produce molecular probes for diagnosis of autoimmune disease could be of significant value in improving diagnostic assays for virtually any disease that exhibits a characteristic immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A Sullivan
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, New York 14642, USA.
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Identifying autoantigens in demyelinating diseases: valuable clues to diagnosis and treatment? Curr Opin Neurol 2012; 25:231-8. [PMID: 22487571 DOI: 10.1097/wco.0b013e3283533a64] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Identification of autoantigens in demyelinating diseases is essential for the understanding of the pathogenesis. Immune responses against these antigens could be used as biomarkers for diagnosis, prognosis and treatment responses. Knowledge of antigen-specific immune responses in individual patients is also a prerequisite for antigen-based therapies. RECENT FINDINGS A proportion of patients with demyelinating disease have antibodies to aquaporin 4 (AQP4) or myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG). Patients with anti-AQP4 have the distinct clinical presentation of neuromyelitis optica (NMO), and these patients often also harbour other autoimmune responses. In contrast, anti-MOG is seen in patients with different disease entities such as childhood multiple sclerosis (MS), acute demyelinating encephalomyelitis (ADEM), anti-AQP4 negative NMO, and optic neuritis, but hardly in adult MS. A number of new candidate autoantigens have been identified and await validation. Antigen-based therapies are mainly aimed at tolerizing T-cell responses against myelin basic protein (MBP) and have shown only modest or no clinical benefit so far. SUMMARY Currently, only few patients with demyelinating diseases can be characterized based on their autoantibody profile. The most prominent antigens in this respect are MOG and AQP4. Further research has to focus on the validation of newly discovered antigens as biomarkers.
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32
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Srivastava R, Aslam M, Kalluri SR, Schirmer L, Buck D, Tackenberg B, Rothhammer V, Chan A, Gold R, Berthele A, Bennett JL, Korn T, Hemmer B. Potassium channel KIR4.1 as an immune target in multiple sclerosis. N Engl J Med 2012; 367:115-23. [PMID: 22784115 PMCID: PMC5131800 DOI: 10.1056/nejmoa1110740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 251] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Multiple sclerosis is a chronic inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system. Many findings suggest that the disease has an autoimmune pathogenesis; the target of the immune response is not yet known. METHODS We screened serum IgG from persons with multiple sclerosis to identify antibodies that are capable of binding to brain tissue and observed specific binding of IgG to glial cells in a subgroup of patients. Using a proteomic approach focusing on membrane proteins, we identified the ATP-sensitive inward rectifying potassium channel KIR4.1 as the target of the IgG antibodies. We used a multifaceted validation strategy to confirm KIR4.1 as a target of the autoantibody response in multiple sclerosis and to show its potential pathogenicity in vivo. RESULTS Serum levels of antibodies to KIR4.1 were higher in persons with multiple sclerosis than in persons with other neurologic diseases and healthy donors (P<0.001 for both comparisons). We replicated this finding in two independent groups of persons with multiple sclerosis or other neurologic diseases (P<0.001 for both comparisons). Analysis of the combined data sets indicated the presence of serum antibodies to KIR4.1 in 186 of 397 persons with multiple sclerosis (46.9%), in 3 of 329 persons with other neurologic diseases (0.9%), and in none of the 59 healthy donors. These antibodies bound to the first extracellular loop of KIR4.1. Injection of KIR4.1 serum IgG into the cisternae magnae of mice led to a profound loss of KIR4.1 expression, altered expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein in astrocytes, and activation of the complement cascade at sites of KIR4.1 expression in the cerebellum. CONCLUSIONS KIR4.1 is a target of the autoantibody response in a subgroup of persons with multiple sclerosis. (Funded by the German Ministry for Education and Research and Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft.).
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajneesh Srivastava
- Department of Neurology, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität, Munich, Germany
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Wilson HL. B cells contribute to MS pathogenesis through antibody-dependent and antibody-independent mechanisms. Biologics 2012; 6:117-23. [PMID: 22690126 PMCID: PMC3363029 DOI: 10.2147/btt.s24734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
For many years, central dogma defined multiple sclerosis (MS) as a T cell-driven autoimmune disorder; however, over the past decade there has been a burgeoning recognition that B cells contribute to the pathogenesis of certain MS disease subtypes. B cells may contribute to MS pathogenesis through production of autoantibodies (or antibodies directed at foreign bodies, which unfortunately cross-react with self-antigens), through promotion of T cell activation via antigen presentation, or through production of cytokines. This review highlights evidence for antibody-dependent and antibody-independent B cell involvement in MS pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather L Wilson
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization-International Vaccine Center, Saskatchewan, Canada
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Beyer NH, Lueking A, Kowald A, Frederiksen JL, Heegaard NHH. Investigation of autoantibody profiles for cerebrospinal fluid biomarker discovery in patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. J Neuroimmunol 2011; 242:26-32. [PMID: 22177943 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2011.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2010] [Revised: 08/12/2011] [Accepted: 08/16/2011] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Using the UNIarray® marker technology platform, cerebrospinal fluid immunoglobulin G reactivities of 15 controls and 17 RRMS patients against human recombinant proteins were investigated. Patient cerebrospinal fluids were oligoclonal band positive and reactivities were compared to that of sex- and age-matched controls. We hereby aimed at the characterization of autoreactivity in patients with RRMS. Differences in autoreactivities between control and RRMS samples were identified comprising autoantigens identified in this study only and previously reported autoantigens as well. A combination of the 10-15 most significant proteins may be investigated further as autoantigens for diagnostic purposes. Additional investigations may include minimizing the number of proteins used in such diagnostic tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natascha Helena Beyer
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry and Immunology, Statens Serum Institut, Artillerivej 5, 2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark.
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Identification of antibodies as biological markers in serum from multiple sclerosis patients by immunoproteomic approach. J Neuroimmunol 2011; 233:175-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2010.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2010] [Revised: 11/01/2010] [Accepted: 11/02/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Somers K, Geusens P, Elewaut D, De Keyser F, Rummens JL, Coenen M, Blom M, Stinissen P, Somers V. Novel autoantibody markers for early and seronegative rheumatoid arthritis. J Autoimmun 2011; 36:33-46. [PMID: 21071175 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2010.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2010] [Revised: 09/17/2010] [Accepted: 10/10/2010] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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The role of antibodies in multiple sclerosis. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2011; 1812:239-45. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2010.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2009] [Revised: 06/11/2010] [Accepted: 06/16/2010] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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38
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Frameshifting in the p6 cDNA phage display system. Molecules 2010; 15:9380-90. [PMID: 21173723 PMCID: PMC6259096 DOI: 10.3390/molecules15129380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2010] [Revised: 12/03/2010] [Accepted: 12/16/2010] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Phage display is a powerful technique that enables easy identification of targets for any type of ligand. Targets are displayed at the phage surface as a fusion protein to one of the phage coat proteins. By means of a repeated process of affinity selection on a ligand, specific enrichment of displayed targets will occur. In our studies using C-terminal display of cDNA fragments to phage coat protein p6, we noticed the occasional enrichment of targets that do not contain an open reading frame. This event has previously been described in other phage display studies using N-terminal display of targets to phage coat proteins and was due to uncommon translational events like frameshifting. The aim of this study was to examine if C-terminal display of targets to p6 is also subjected to frameshifting. To this end, an enriched target not containing an open reading frame was selected and an E-tag was coupled at the C-terminus in order to measure target display at the surface of the phage. The tagged construct was subsequently expressed in 3 different reading frames and display of both target and E-tag measured to detect the occurrence of frameshifting. As a result, we were able to demonstrate display of the target both in the 0 and in the +1 reading frame indicating that frameshifting can also take place when C-terminal fusion to minor coat protein p6 is applied.
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Abstract
Phage display has been extensively used to study protein-protein interactions, receptor- and antibody-binding sites, and immune responses, to modify protein properties, and to select antibodies against a wide range of different antigens. In the format most often used, a polypeptide is displayed on the surface of a filamentous phage by genetic fusion to one of the coat proteins, creating a chimeric coat protein, and coupling phenotype (the protein) to genotype (the gene within). As the gene encoding the chimeric coat protein is packaged within the phage, selection of the phage on the basis of the binding properties of the polypeptide displayed on the surface simultaneously results in the isolation of the gene encoding the polypeptide. This unit describes the background to the technique, and illustrates how it has been applied to a number of different problems, each of which has its neurobiological counterparts. Although this overview concentrates on the use of filamentous phage, which is the most popular platform, other systems are also described.
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Fraussen J, Vrolix K, Martinez-Martinez P, Losen M, Meulemans E, De Baets MH, Stinissen P, Somers V. A novel method for making human monoclonal antibodies. J Autoimmun 2010; 35:130-4. [PMID: 20732843 PMCID: PMC7126289 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2010.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2010] [Revised: 05/01/2010] [Accepted: 05/12/2010] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
We have developed a B cell immortalization method for low B cell numbers per well using simultaneous B cell stimulation by CpG2006 and B cell infection by Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), followed by an additional CpG2006 and interleukin-2 (IL-2) stimulus. Using this method, immunoglobulin G (IgG)-producing immortalized B cell lines were generated from peripheral blood IgG+CD22+ B cells with an efficiency of up to 83%. Antibody can already be obtained from the culture supernatant after 3–4 weeks. Moreover, clonality analysis demonstrated monoclonality in 87% of the resulting immortalized B cell lines. Given the high immortalization efficiency and monoclonality rate, evidence is provided that no further subcloning is necessary. An important application of this B cell immortalization method is the characterization of (autoreactive) antibodies from patients with autoimmune disease. This could eventually lead to the identification of new autoantigens, disease markers or targets for therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Fraussen
- Hasselt University, Biomedical Research Institute and Transnationale Universiteit Limburg, School of Life Sciences, Diepenbeek, Belgium
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Meinl E, Derfuss T, Linington C. Identifying targets for autoantibodies in CNS inflammation: Strategies and achievements. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1759-1961.2009.00006.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Somers K, Stinissen P, Somers V. Optimization of High-throughput Autoantibody Profiling for the Discovery of Novel Antigenic Targets in Rheumatoid Arthritis. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2009; 1173:92-102. [PMID: 19758137 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04654.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Klaartje Somers
- Hasselt University, Biomedical Research Institute, and Transnationale Universiteit Limburg, School of Life Sciences, Agoralaan, Building C, 3590 Diepenbeek, Belgium
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Somers K, Govarts C, Stinissen P, Somers V. Multiplexing approaches for autoantibody profiling in multiple sclerosis. Autoimmun Rev 2009; 8:573-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.autrev.2009.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2009] [Accepted: 02/01/2009] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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Di Niro R, D'Angelo S, Secco P, Marzari R, Santoro C, Sblattero D. Profiling the autoantibody repertoire by screening phage-displayed human cDNA libraries. Methods Mol Biol 2009; 570:353-369. [PMID: 19649606 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-60327-394-7_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The advent of the serological identification of antigens by procedures such as cDNA cloning and recombinant protein expression has allowed the direct molecular definition of immunogenic proteins. The phage-display technology provides several advantages over conventional immunoscreening procedures based on plasmid or lambda-phage cDNA libraries. So far, attempts to display open reading frames, such as those encoded by cDNA fragments, on filamentous phages have not been very successful. We managed to develop a strategy based on "folding reporters" which allows filtering out open reading frames from DNA and displaying them on filamentous phages in such a way that they are amenable to subsequent selection or screening. Once the cDNA library of interest is created, phage-display technology is used for selection of novel putative antigens; these are then validated by printing isolated protein on microarray and screening with patients' sera.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Di Niro
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy
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