The one-child family: France in the European context

A systematic review of the childbearing needs of single-child couples

BACKGROUND

Nowadays, the challenge of having single child is spreading in many countries. Only- child family is prevalent in 26% of families in Canada, 21% in the United States, 47.5% in Europe and 20% in Iran, which can lead to fertility below replacement level. Therefore, the current review was conducted to identify the needs of single-child couples.

METHODS

The PRISMA checklist was used to prepare this systematic review report. English and Persian articles published between 2000 and April 2023 were searched in the English databases of ISI, PubMed, Cochrane library and Google Scholar search engine as well as Persian databases of SID and Magiran using keywords of only child, needs assessment and Reproductive behavior. All cross-sectional and correlational studies that addressed the needs of single-child couples were included in the study. The quality assessment of the articles was done by the STROBE checklist. Data extraction was done by two independent researchers using a self-structured checklist. To analyze the data, following tabulating the extracted data, the process of qualitative synthesis was done for systematic review taking into account ethical considerations.

RESULTS

Out of 1,581 articles found, 17 articles were included in the systematic review. The needs of single-child couples were divided into four general areas included 1) Financial needs, 2) Cultural needs, 3) Educational needs, and 4) Supportive needs. The support needs included two kinds of social and family support.

CONCLUSION

Solving financial needs, creating a culture of positive values of childbearing and men's participation in household affairs, considering women's preferences in order to increase education and employment, childbearing training and counseling and creating social and family support in line with work and family harmony and quality care of children, as the most important needs of single-child couples, should be incorporated in the formulation of childbearing incentive programs.

Defining and Identifying Only Children: A Research Note on the Concept and Measurement Illustrated With UK Survey Data

Despite increasing interest in the circumstances and outcomes of only children in the demographic literature, the conceptualization of this group has received limited scholarly attention. This research note argues for greater engagement by demographers and social scientists in the conceptualization and identification of only children by addressing three aims. First, we outline potential definitions of only children, present a framework to guide researchers' decisions, and evaluate whether only children can be reliably identified using the British birth cohort studies. Second, we show that the prevalence estimates are contingent on the timing of measurement in childhood, indicating the need for caution when deriving only-child status from cross-sectional household grid data. Third, we demonstrate that both the size and the characteristics of the only-child group may differ across definitions, highlighting that the accurate operationalization of some definitions is particularly restricted by survey designs that prioritize mothers for data collection on children and families. We argue that researchers interested in sole children's outcomes must choose the most appropriate measure for a given research question and, given that many datasets limit how accurately any indicator of only children can capture the chosen definition, reflect on how the operationalization of their measure might affect the results.

The role of imaginary companion in the life of only children: a qualitative study

INTRODUCTION

An imaginary companion is an invisible or personified entity created by children for themselves. An imaginary companion typically serves as a companion to the child and plays a significant role in their life, especially for only children who may experience more loneliness compared to other children. This research was conducted to investigate the role of an imaginary companion in the lives of only children.

METHOD

The present study was conducted using a qualitative method and a content analysis approach. Through purposeful sampling, a total of 34 preschool and primary school children, aged 6 to 9 years, from schools in Mashhad city, were selected until saturation was reached. They were subjected to semi-structured interviews. After data collection, the data were coded, and then the main and sub-themes were extracted.

RESULTS

The research findings were represented in the form of 196 statements, 28 sub-themes, and 9 main themes. The main themes included the role of an imaginary companion in alleviating loneliness, the role of an imaginary companion in amusement, the role of an imaginary companion in emotional regulation, conversations with an imaginary companion, guidance from an imaginary companion for good and bad behaviors, the assistance of an imaginary companion in tasks, helping to generate new scenarios, the advantages of having an imaginary companion, and the disadvantages of having one.

CONCLUSION

Based on the aforementioned findings, it can be concluded that the presence of an imaginary companion can not only support children but also promote creativity and distance them from the virtual space and realities of the real world. Parental awareness of this matter can aid in the child's growth, fulfill their needs, and, on the other hand, prevent potential harm to children.

Sibling group size and BMI over the life course: Evidence from four British cohort studies

Only children, here defined as individuals growing up without siblings, are a small but growing demographic subgroup. Existing research has consistently shown that, on average, only children have higher body mass index (BMI) than individuals who grow up with siblings. How this difference develops with age is unclear and existing evidence is inconclusive regarding the underlying mechanisms. We investigate BMI trajectories for only children and those with siblings up to late adolescence for four British birth cohorts and across adulthood for three cohorts. We use data on BMI from ages 2-63 years (cohort born 1946); 7-55 years (born 1958); 10-46 (born 1970) and 3-17 years (born 2000-2002). Using mixed effects regression separately for each cohort, we estimate the change in BMI by age comparing only children and those with siblings. The results show higher average BMI among only children in each cohort, yet the difference is substantively small and limited to school age and adolescence. The association between sibling status and BMI at age 10/11 is not explained by differential health behaviours (physical activity, inactivity and diet) or individual or family background characteristics in any of the cohorts. Although persistent across cohorts, and despite the underlying mechanism remaining unexplained, the substantively small magnitude of the observed difference and the convergence of the trajectories by early adulthood in all cohorts raises doubts about whether the difference in BMI between only children and siblings in the UK context should be of research or clinical concern. Future research could usefully be directed more at whether only children experience elevated rates of disease, for which high BMI is a risk factor, at different stages of the life course and across contexts.

Is Two Still Best? Change in Parity-Specific Fertility Across Education in Low-Fertility Countries

The dominance of two-child families is considered an intrinsic characteristic of low fertility societies. Their share was continuously increasing among baby boom cohorts but the rise ceased afterwards. While parity- and education-specific fertility trends during the expansion of the two-child families have been studied, corresponding analyses of developments in the post-expansion birth cohorts are scarce. This study investigates the parity-specific fertility trends that ended the expansion of two-child families across educational groups. We use data on completed fertility of female cohorts born between 1936 and 1970 in 16 low-fertility countries. Besides examining trends in education- and parity-specific fertility, we provide evidence on increasing variation in family size and on the contribution of parity-specific fertility to the share of two child families among women with low, medium and high education. Our results show that the expansion of two-child families stopped as the variation in family size increased: transition rates to first and/or second birth declined whereas those to third birth increased. This polarisation process was strongest among women with low education. Apparently, as the number of women progressing to second birth declined, they became more selected and family-oriented, and thus more likely to progress to further births. The fact that the strongest polarisation of fertility was observed among the low educated reflects the group’s increasing selectivity. We demonstrate that rising polarisation of family size is a common development to most high-income low-fertility populations, especially among the low educated, regardless of substantial cross-country differences in fertility levels as well as in institutional, economic and cultural settings.

Patterns of help and care by adult only children and children with siblings

Adult children with siblings can share caring for older parents but adult only children face this responsibility alone. Given increased longevity and reliance on informal care-giving, as well as an increase in one-child families, there is a need to investigate only children's care-giving further. Using data from three large-scale British birth cohorts, this paper investigates patterns of parent-care, care intensity and wellbeing at ages 38 and 42 (N = 17,255, N = 16,703; born 1970), 50 and 55 (N = 12,775, N = 11,339; born 1958) and 63 (N = 2,364; born 1946), how sibling composition intersects with gender in relation to care-giving and whether different care-giving patterns are associated with wellbeing. Only children are more likely to provide parent-care and the pattern is consistent with an interpretation that differences by sibling status might increase with age. Provision is gendered, and the sibling group composition matters for involvement. Although care-giving is related to wellbeing, we found no evidence that this differs between only children and those with siblings. The literature on only children has hitherto focused largely on childhood, suggesting that on some outcomes they benefit from a concentration of parental resources. Our results suggest that in middle adulthood parental care needs may instead be concentrated for the only child without the ‘resource’ of siblings. This indicates a need to develop further our understanding of this growing demographic subgroup.

Self-employment as a work-and-family reconciliation strategy? Evidence from Poland

As self-employment offers greater flexibility compared to wage and salary contracts, women might choose it to achieve a better work-family balance. Past empirical research on this topic yielded equivocal results, however. We add to this discussion and provide evidence for Poland. Public support for working parents in Poland is relatively poor and women need to develop strategies in order to combine work and care. Running one's own business might be such a strategy. We adopt a life-course perspective and investigate whether self-employment encourages childbearing and whether women who have already given birth are more likely to opt for self-employment. We estimate multi-process hazard models, using the Generations and Gender Survey. We find that self-employment neither affects women's fertility decisions nor does it attract mothers on wage and salary contracts. Nevertheless, it is chosen by non-employed mothers as it may be the only opportunity for them to enter the labour market.

Is the Family Size of Parents and Children Still Related? Revisiting the Cross-Generational Relationship Over the Last Century

In most developed countries, the fertility levels of parents and children are positively correlated. This article analyzes the strength of the intergenerational transmission of family size over the last century, including a focus on this reproduction in large and small families. Using the large-scale French Family Survey (2011), we show a weak but significant correlation of approximately 0.12–0.15, which is comparable with levels in other Western countries. It is stronger for women than men, with a gender convergence across cohorts. A decrease in intergenerational transmission is observed across birth cohorts regardless of whether socioeconomic factors are controlled, supporting the idea that the family of origin has lost implicit and explicit influence on fertility choices. As parents were adopting the two-child family norm, the number of siblings lost its importance for having two children, but it continues to explain lower parity and, above all, three-child families. This suggests that the third child has increasingly become an “extra child” (beyond the norm) favored by people from large families.

Geographical variations in fertility and transition to second and third birth in Britain

Geographical variations in fertility have been observed within several countries in Northern Europe, with higher fertility in rural areas, smaller settlements and city suburbs. However, the processes underlying such fertility variations across residential contexts are not well understood. This paper contributes to the on-going debate by looking at local variations in fertility in Britain. It aims to disentangle the relative contribution of a number of factors, including the socio-economic characteristics of individuals, housing conditions, patterns of residential relocation and lastly, contextual factors stricto sensu. In addition, it seeks to identify those aspects of reproductive behaviour which are more likely to be associated with the observed spatial differences, and to distinguish between those that may be influenced by local context and those that respond to social influences at different scales. The focus is on local fertility contexts which, we argue, have the potential to influence the fertility behaviour of individuals through processes of social learning. Individual level data from the British Household Panel Survey and methods of event history analysis are used to explore women's transitions to second and third order births in Britain in the early 21st century. Our findings indicate that individual reproductive life paths respond to a variety of social processes acting at various scales, and that these influences vary by birth order. Most interestingly, local fertility contexts influence transition to first birth but not transition to higher order births, which are mainly associated with individual characteristics of women and their partners. Dominant spacing effects, however, suggest that local contexts have an indirect impact on second and third births through age at the onset of childbearing. The study demonstrates the importance of considering social interaction theories, and their extension to scale-sensitive spatial contexts in which these interactions take place, when analysing geographical variations in fertility. Future research seeking to explain subnational fertility variations must recognize the importance of developing theoretical understandings to inform empirical work.