Perceptions of National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I Female Athletic Trainers on Motherhood and Work-Life Balance: Individual- and Sociocultural-Level Factors

Work-Family Conflict and Family Role Performance Among Collegiate Athletic Trainers

CONTEXT

Work-life balance continues to be a focal point of athletic training research, particularly due to the job challenges and demands of health care providers. Despite a large body of literature, much is still unexplored, especially in the area of family role performance (FRP).

OBJECTIVE

To examine the relationships between work-family conflict (WFC), FRP, and various demographic variables among athletic trainers employed in the collegiate setting.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional online survey.

SETTING

Collegiate setting.

PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS

A total of 586 collegiate athletic trainers (females = 374, males = 210, sex variant or nonconforming = 1, preferred not to answer = 1).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Data were collected through an online survey (Qualtrics) in which participants responded to demographic questions and previously validated WFC and FRP scales. Demographic data were reported and analyzed for descriptive information and frequencies. Mann-Whitney U tests were performed to identify differences among groups.

RESULTS

Participants' mean scores were 28.19 ± 6.01 and 45.86 ± 11.55 for the FRP and WFC scales, respectively. Mann-Whitney U tests revealed differences between men and women for WFC scores (U = 344 667, P = .021). The FRP score was moderately negatively correlated with the WFC total score (rs[584] = -0.497, P < .001) and predicted the WFC score (b = 72.02, t582 = -13.30, P = .001). The Mann-Whitney U test demonstrated that married athletic trainers (47.20 ± 11.92) had higher WFC scores than those who were not married (43.48 ± 11.78; U = 19847.00, P = .003). Mann-Whitney U analysis (U = 32 096.00, P = .001) also revealed a difference between collegiate athletic trainers with children (48.16 ± 12.44) and those without children (44.68 ± 10.90).

CONCLUSIONS

Collegiate athletic trainers experienced more WFC with marriage and having children. We propose that the time required to raise a family and build relationships may cause WFC due to time incongruencies. Athletic trainers want to be able to spend time with their families; however, when such time is highly limited, then WFC increases.

Parental Perspectives of Work-Family Conflict and Guilt in Collegiate Athletic Trainers: A Descriptive Qualitative Design

CONTEXT

Work-family guilt has been reported among athletic trainers (ATs) working in the intercollegiate setting; however, it has yet to be fully explored from a descriptive, in-depth perspective.

OBJECTIVE

To better understand the experiences of work-family conflict and guilt of intercollegiate ATs who are parents.

DESIGN

Descriptive qualitative study.

SETTING

Intercollegiate athletics.

PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS

Twelve collegiate ATs (females = 6, males = 6) participated in the study. All 12 were married (12 ± 7 years) with an average 2 ± 1 children (range = 1-4). The ATs reported working 51 ± 9 hours per week and spending 11 ± 7 hours per week on household duties or chores.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

One-on-one interviews were conducted with all participants. An inductive descriptive coding process was used to analyze the data after saturation was met. Peer review and researcher triangulation were completed.

RESULTS

Conflict and guilt were discussed as unavoidable given the equally demanding roles of AT and parent. The resulting guilt was bidirectional, as each role is equally important to the AT. The management theme was specifically defined by 3 subthemes: creating a separation between work and parenting roles, the benefits of having a supportive workplace, and the importance of having coworkers and supervisors with shared life experiences.

CONCLUSIONS

The ATs experienced work-family conflict and feelings of guilt from their parental responsibilities. The guilt described by the ATs was bidirectional, as they placed high value on both their parenting and athletic training roles. Guilt was balanced and managed by reducing the spillover from the parental role into work or work into time at home. By separating roles and having supportive workplace environments, including coworkers and supervisors who had similar life experiences, ATs felt they were better able to meet work and home demands.

Work and Life in the Sport Industry: A Review of Work-Life Interface Experiences Among Athletic Employees

OBJECTIVE

To review the literature on work-life interfaces in the sport industry, focusing on athletic trainers, coaches, athletes, and other sport personnel.

DATA SOURCES

Studies were identified using SPORTDiscus, PsychINFO, and Google Scholar. Search terms included work-family balance, work-life balance, work-family conflict, work-life conflict, work-family enrichment, and work-life enrichment. These search terms were used in different combinations and configurations in the search process.

STUDY SELECTION

Included studies were peer-reviewed journal articles, with primary data collection, and published in English. In the articles, researchers also examined some aspect of the work-family interface in relation to the sport industry.

DATA EXTRACTION

The initial searches returned 110 articles. Of these, 21 articles were removed for a lack of focus on the sport industry, for being a duplicate, or for focusing outside the work-life interface in sport. A total of 89 articles remained for a full analysis. An additional 20 articles were then removed because the authors either did not collect primary data or focused outside our study purpose. Therefore, 69 articles were included in the review.

DATA SYNTHESIS

The theoretical framework, study population, population region, methods, article focus, and findings from the articles were recorded. Articles were then grouped based on the study population focus (eg, athletic trainer, coach, or other).

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggested that investigators' primary interests were athletic trainers and coaches, primarily with respect to work-life balance and work-life conflict. Less attention was paid to international participants, athletes, and topics related to work-life enrichment. The field will continue to progress as more populations and perspectives are studied. Furthermore, an additional emphasis on positive organizational behaviors, such as work-life enrichment and life-work enrichment, will move the literature forward and answer useful questions with both theoretical and practical outcomes.

Work-Family Guilt: The Perspective of Secondary School Athletic Trainers With Children

CONTEXT

The literature in athletic training has consistently demonstrated evidence of work-family-life conflict and the potential consequences of that conflict among athletic trainers (ATs) employed in the clinical setting. Parental responsibilities have been suggested to increase the conflict among work, family, and life. The emotions that occur because of this conflict have received little attention and warrant further study.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate perceptions and antecedents of work-family guilt (WFG) among secondary school ATs with children.

DESIGN

Phenomenological qualitative study.

SETTING

Secondary schools.

PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS

Twenty (13 women, 7 men) ATs with children (range = 1-3) employed in the secondary school setting. All but 3 were married (n = 17) at the time of the study. Their average age was 37 ± 11 years, and they were certified as ATs for 14 ± 11 years.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Participants completed one-on-one semistructured phone interviews. Multiple-analyst triangulation and peer review were used to establish data credibility.

RESULTS

General inductive analysis revealed that men and women participants experienced feelings of WFG despite having supportive work environments. The guilt for both sexes stemmed from work interfering with family and an altruistic mindset. Women indicated they felt pressure from their husbands that contributed to feelings of guilt.

CONCLUSIONS

Secondary school ATs experienced WFG. Trying to balance parental and athletic training duties can cause an emotional response, and ATs' giving and caring nature may be a precursor to guilt.

Work-Family Conflict of Collegiate and Secondary School Athletic Trainers Who Are Parents

CONTEXT

The work-life interface has been a much discussed and researched area within athletic training. The National Athletic Trainers' Association position statement on work-life balance highlighted the profession's interest in this topic. However, gaps in the literature remain and include the roles of time-based conflict and social support.

OBJECTIVE

To compare work-family conflict (WFC) and social support among athletic trainers (ATs) employed in the 2 most common practice settings.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional observational survey.

SETTING

Collegiate and secondary school settings.

PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS

A total of 474 (females = 231, males = 243) ATs who were employed in the collegiate (205, 43.2%) or secondary school (269, 56.8%) setting.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Data were collected through a Web-based survey designed to measure conflict and social support. Likert responses were summed. Demographic information was analyzed for frequency and distribution. Independent t tests and Mann-Whitney U tests were calculated to determine group differences. Linear regression was used to determine if social support predicted WFC.

RESULTS

Social provisions and WFC were negatively correlated, and the social provisions score predicted WFC. No WFC differences (P = .778) were found between collegiate and high school ATs even though collegiate ATs worked more hours (63 ± 11) during their busiest seasons compared with those in the high school setting (54 ± 13, P < .001). Similarly, no difference (P = .969) was present between men and women, although men worked more hours. Our participants scored highest on time-based WFC items.

CONCLUSIONS

Work-family conflict was experienced globally in 2 of the most common athletic training settings and between sexes. This indicates WFC is universally experienced and therefore needs to be addressed, specifically with a focus on time-based conflict. In addition to time-management strategies, ATs need support from coworkers, peers, and family members.

Athletic Trainer Burnout: A Systematic Review of the Literature

OBJECTIVE

To identify the causes, effects, and prevalence of burnout in athletic trainers (ATs) identified in the literature.

DATA SOURCES

EBSCO: SPORTDiscus and OneSearch were accessed, using the search terms athletic trainer AND burnout.

STUDY SELECTION

Studies selected for inclusion were peer reviewed, published in a journal, and written in English and investigated prevalence, causes, effects, or alleviation of AT burnout.

DATA EXTRACTION

The initial search yielded 558 articles. Articles that did not specifically involve ATs were excluded from further inspection. The remaining 83 full-text articles were reviewed. Of these 83 articles, 48 examined prevalence, causes, effects, or alleviation of AT burnout. An evaluation of the bibliographies of those 48 articles revealed 3 additional articles that were not initially identified but met the inclusion criteria. In total, 51 articles were included in data collection.

DATA SYNTHESIS

Articles were categorized based on investigation of prevalence, causes, effects, or alleviation of burnout. Articles were also categorized based on which subset of the athletic training population they observed (ie, athletic training students, certified graduate assistants, high school or collegiate staff members, academic faculty).

CONCLUSIONS

Burnout was observed in all studied subsets of the population (ie, students, graduate assistants, staff, faculty), and multiple causes of burnout were reported. Suggested causes of burnout in ATs included work-life conflict and organizational factors such as poor salaries, long hours, and difficulties dealing with the "politics and bureaucracy" of athletics. Effects of burnout in ATs included physical, emotional, and behavioral concerns (eg, intention to leave the job or profession).

An Examination of Relationships Among Resiliency, Hardiness, Affectivity, and Work-Life Balance in Collegiate Athletic Trainers

CONTEXT:

A multilevel model has been used to describe the complex nature of work-life balance in sport organizations. Organizational aspects such as work scheduling, hours worked, job demands, and decreased perceived value have been reported as factors that can positively or negatively affect work-life balance. However, the individual factors that contribute to this balance have not been well studied.

OBJECTIVE:

To better understand the individual factors (emotional stability and coping) that may facilitate or inhibit work-life balance among athletic trainers (ATs).

DESIGN:

Cross-sectional online survey.

SETTING:

National Collegiate Athletic Association athletic training setting.

PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS:

A total of 423 (193 men, 230 women) ATs employed in the National Collegiate Athletic Association setting.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S):

Data were collected via a Web-based survey instrument consisting of demographic and Likert-scale questions related to resiliency, hardiness, affectivity, work-family conflict (WFC), and work-family enrichment (WFE). Likert responses were summed and demographic information was analyzed for frequency and distribution. Independent t tests, analysis of variance, and Spearman correlations were calculated to evaluate the relationships among variables.

RESULTS:

Participants exhibited moderate hardiness scores of 3.9 ± 4.0 (range, -9 to 15). Positive affectivity was weakly negatively correlated with WFC ( r = -0.212, P < .001) and moderately positively correlated with WFE ( r = 0.448, P < .001). Resiliency was weakly negatively correlated with WFC ( r = -0.25, P < .001) and weakly positively correlated with WFE ( r = 0.228, P < .001). Additionally, individuals with less than 10 years of experience had lower positive affectivity scores than those with more than 10 years of experience. Men scored higher than women only in resiliency.

CONCLUSIONS:

Collegiate ATs demonstrated moderate levels of coping behaviors that allow them to manage their personal and professional lives. Athletic trainers with more years of experience displayed a more positive affect.

The Organizational Climate in Collegiate Athletics: An Athletic Trainer's Perspective

CONTEXT

  An organizational climate is largely based on an employee's perceptions of the working conditions in which he or she engages regularly. A multifaceted concept, the organizational climate is often formed by perceptions of employee welfare, rewards, and support. Achieving work-life balance is also a part of the climate.

OBJECTIVE

  To learn collegiate athletic trainers' perceptions of organizational climate and specifically how it may pertain to their work-life balance.

DESIGN

  Phenomenologic study.

SETTING

  Collegiate practice setting.

PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS

  Thirty athletic trainers working in the collegiate athletics setting took part in 1-on-1 phone interviews. The participants were 30.5 (interquartile range [IQR] = 7.75) years old and had been certified for 7 (IQR = 5) years and at their current position for 4 (IQR = 3) years.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

  Participants completed a phone interview that followed a semistructured framework. All transcribed interviews were analyzed using a phenomenologic approach. Researcher triangulation, expert review, and data saturation were used to establish credibility.

RESULTS

  Athletic trainers working in the collegiate athletics setting who had positive perceptions of their work-life balance described their organizational climate as family friendly. Our participants' supervisors allowed for autonomy related to work scheduling, which provided opportunities for work-life balance. These athletic trainers believed that they worked in a climate that was collegial, which was helpful for work-life balance. In addition, the importance of placing family first was part of the climate.

CONCLUSIONS

  The perceptions of our participants revealed a climate of family friendliness, supervisor support, and collegiality among staff members, which facilitated the positive climate for work-life balance. The mindset embraced the importance of family and recognized that work did not always have to supersede personal priorities.

Navigating Motherhood and the Role of the Head Athletic Trainer in the Collegiate Setting

CONTEXT

Motherhood has been identified as a barrier to the head athletic trainer (AT) position. Role models have been cited as a possible facilitator for increasing the number of women who pursue and maintain this role in the collegiate setting.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the experiences of female ATs balancing motherhood and head AT positions in the National Collegiate Athletic Association Division II and III and National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics settings.

DESIGN

Qualitative study.

SETTING

National Collegiate Athletic Association Divisions II and III and National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics.

PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS

A total of 22 female head ATs (average age = 40 ± 8 years) who were married with children completed our study. Our participants had been certified for 15.5 ± 7.5 years and in their current positions as head ATs for 9 ± 8 years.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We conducted online interviews with all participants. Participants journaled their reflections on a series of open-ended questions pertaining to their experiences as head ATs. Data were analyzed following a general inductive approach. Credibility was confirmed through peer review and researcher triangulation.

RESULTS

We identified 3 major contributors to work-life conflict. Two speak to organizational influences on conflict: work demands and time of year. The role of motherhood, which was more of a personal contributor, also precipitated conflict for our ATs. Four themes emerged as work-life balance facilitators: planning, attitude and perspective, support networks, and workplace integration. Support was defined at both the personal and professional levels.

CONCLUSIONS

In terms of the organization, our participants juggled long work hours, travel, and administrative tasks. Individually and socioculturally, they overcame their guilt and their need to be present and an active part of the parenting process. These mothers demonstrated the ability to cope with their demanding roles as both moms and head ATs.

Personality Traits and Burnout Among Athletic Trainers Employed in the Collegiate Setting

CONTEXT

Burnout, a psychological state of mental weariness that occurs when work stresses become overwhelming, has frequently been documented in athletic trainers and has been hypothesized to affect professional retention. Experiences of burnout may be influenced by individual-level factors such as gender or personality, though few researchers have investigated such interactions in athletic trainers.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the relationship between personalities, as measured by the Big Five Personality Inventory, and burnout.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

SETTING

Online Web-based survey.

PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS

A total of 189 athletic trainers working in the collegiate setting, 65 men (34.4%) and 124 women (65.6%), with an average of 5 ± 3 years certified and 2.5 ± 2 years working in their current position.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Data were collected using a Web-based survey instrument consisting of 3 sections: (1) demographics, (2) burnout survey, and (3) Big Five Personality Inventory. Likert responses for the burnout score were summed. Independent t tests, Pearson correlations, and multiple regressions were calculated to evaluate the relationships between demographics and burnout and between burnout and personality.

RESULTS

This group of athletic trainers experienced moderate burnout, regardless of gender. A weak negative correlation was present between burnout score and both agreeableness and extraversion. A weak positive correlation existed between burnout and neuroticism. These variables did not predict burnout scores; only neuroticism added significantly to the weak predictive value. Personality explained only 17.3% of the variability in burnout scores.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study confirms the findings of previous researchers highlighting moderate burnout in athletic trainers employed in the collegiate setting. We did not find that personality significantly predicted burnout, though it did account for a small amount of the variance in burnout scores. Thus, organizational-level factors may play a greater role in determining burnout in athletic trainers than individual-level factors such as personality.

A Longitudinal Examination of Work-Life Balance in the Collegiate Setting

CONTEXT

The literature regarding work-life balance (WLB) is plentiful, particularly in the National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I collegiate setting due to its demanding nature as defined by work hours and travel. Despite the comprehensive understanding of factors contributing to WLB for athletic trainers (ATs) in this setting, the effect of time of year has yet to be investigated.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the influence sport season timing (ie, preseason, in-season, off-season) can have on perceptions and experiences of WLB for ATs.

DESIGN

Qualitative, case-study design.

SETTING

Division I collegiate practice setting.

PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS

Six ATs employed in the Division I college setting (3 women, 3 men) volunteered and completed our study over 1 year. The average age of participants was 31.0 ± 3 years, and they had 9.0 ± 3 years of experience.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We conducted semistructured one-on-one phone interviews with each participant at 4 points during the year (August, November, February, June). All interviews were transcribed verbatim. Data were analyzed inductively, and we used peer review, multiple-analyst triangulation, and member checks for credibility.

RESULTS

Time of year (eg, competitive in-season), organizational demands (eg, hours and travel), and life stage (eg, roles assumed) were factors that influenced WLB for ATs in the collegiate setting. Having a positive and adaptable mind-set; having coworker, supervisor, and personal support; and engaging in personal or family time were factors that counterbalanced the inhibitors.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that a career as an AT in the collegiate setting can create WLB concerns; these concerns, however, seem to peak during the competitive in-season for the AT's primary coverage team. Additionally, conflict that arises for ATs seems to be stimulated by time, as work roles are often less accommodating due to the athletic atmosphere.