The Attenuation of Scutellariae radix Extract on Oxidative Stress for Colon Injury in Lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW264.7 Cell and 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene Sulfonic Acid-induced Ulcerative Colitis Rats

Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Aralia elata Extract Against Dextran Sodium Sulfate-Induced Colitis in Mice and Raw 264.7 Macrophage Cells Exposed to Lipopolysaccharide: First Report

Aralia elata (AE) is an anti-inflammatory, polyphenolic containing medicinal plant. However, little is known about AE and its application to ulcerative colitis (UC). This study aimed to confirm AE extract's antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects in vivo and in vitro. The in vitro antioxidant activity was evaluated by measuring total polyphenol and flavonoid content in AE extract. AE extract (10 000 mg/L) contained 186.8 mg GAE/g polyphenol and 81.9 mg QE/g flavonoid. Mice were divided into 6 groups, including control, which received normal saline, and treatment groups, which received dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) with or without AE extract (250, 500, and 1000 mg/kg). RAW 264.7 macrophage cells were divided into 2 groups: control and treatment. RAW 264.7 macrophage cells treated with sterile double distilled water, 1 mg/L lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and AE extracts (25, 50, 75, 100 µg/mL) were used to assess the cytotoxicity and anti-inflammatory activity. High-performance liquid chromatography, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits, and histology were employed to analyze the AE extract contents, nitric oxide (NO), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-6, as oxidative stress markers. In addition, the disease activity index (DAI) and cytotoxicity were determined in mice and cells, respectively. High-performance liquid chromatography analysis revealed that AE extract is rich in chlorogenic acid (96 ± 0.01 mg/g). DSS increased the DAI and levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, and immune cell infiltration compared with those of the control animals. Furthermore, LPS eventually reduced cell viability and increased the levels of NO, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in contrast to control cells. After treatment, a noticeable reduction was observed in the levels of DAI, NO, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 compared to those without AE treatments. Overall, AE extract is safe and had anti-inflammatory properties. Therefore, AE extract can be considered a potential pre-treatment supplement for UC.

Protective effects of paeonol against lipopolysaccharide-induced liver oxidative stress and inflammation in gibel carp (Carassius auratus gibelio)

Paeonol (2'-hydroxy-4'-methoxyacetophenone) is a phenol that exhibits antioxidant and anti-inflammatory capabilities. In this study, the underlying mechanism of paeonol against LPS-induced oxidative stress and inflammatory responses in gibel carp was investigated. Three hundred healthy gibel carp were divided into five groups (n = 9), intraperitoneally injected with LPS and thereafter treated with paeonol (16 mg/kg and 64 mg/kg). Fish were anesthetized with MS-222 (100 mg/L), and samples were collected at 72 h to investigate plasma biochemical indexes, liver histopathology, antioxidant enzymatic activity, and TLR receptor-related gene expression. Fish injected with LPS (20 mg/kg) exhibited significantly increased plasma aminotransferase (ALT), aminotransferase (AST), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), glucose (GLU), diamine oxidase (DAO), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) levels (P < 0.05). In addition, LPS challenge significantly enhanced myeloperoxidase (MPO) and malondialdehyde (MDA) contents, whereas those of catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) decreased (P < 0.05). However, treatment with paeonol attenuated these LPS-induced changes (P < 0.05). The mRNA expression of TLR4, TIRAP, MyD88, TRAF6, NF-κB, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-8, which were activated by LPS challenge (P < 0.05), were downregulated by paeonol. Additionally, histopathological examination demonstrated that paeonol alleviates LPS-induced hepatic tissue lesions in fish. Taken together, the results suggest that paeonol mitigates LPS-induced liver oxidative stress and inflammation in gibel carp.

Gardenia jasminoides Ellis Fruit Extracts Attenuated Colitis in 2,4,6-Trinitrobenzenesulfonic Acid-Induced Rats

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a relapsing inflammatory disease with an unknown precise etiology. The purpose of this study is to investigate the protective effects of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis fruit extracts (GFE) on 2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colitis in rats. GFE (50 mg/kg, 100 mg/kg) were administered orally for 7 days after induction. Meanwhile, the chemical components of GFE were performed by UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS. GFE significantly decreased DAI scores and ameliorated macroscopic and histologic damage. It also reduced the levels of MPO, NO, MDA, IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6, while increasing the level of SOD. Moreover, 56 components were identified in GFE using a UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS method, which can be categorized into six structural groups. Our results indicated that GFE has an ameliorative effect on TNBS-induced colitis in rats, which may further verify its anti-inflammatory and antioxidative properties. Therefore, GFE can be a promising protective agent of colitis that deserves further investigation.

A recent update on the use of Chinese medicine in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease

BACKGROUND

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic idiopathic disease that is characterized by inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract. Proper management of IBD requires both early diagnosis and novel therapies and management programs. Many reports have suggested that Chinese medicine has unique properties favorable to the treatment of IBD. However, there are no systematic analyses on this topic.

PURPOSE

This review summarizes recent studies that assessed the effects and mechanisms of Chinese medicine in the treatment of IBD in order to fully understand the advantages of Chinese medicine in the management of IBD.

METHODS

A literature search was conducted using peer-reviewed and clinical databases, including PubMed, Web of Science, ClinicalTrials.gov, MEDLINE, EMBASE, Springer LINK, Wan-fang database, the Chinese Biomedicine Database, and the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI). Keywords used were inflammatory bowel disease (including Ulcerative colitis or Crohn's disease) and Chinese medicine. All selected articles were from 1997 to 2021, and each were assessed critically for our exclusion criteria. Studies describing the pathogenesis of IBD, the effects and mechanisms of Chinese medicine in the treatment of IBD, in particular their roles in immune regulation, intestinal flora regulation, and improvement of intestinal barrier function, were included.

CONCLUSION

This review highlights recent progress in the use of Chinese medicine in the treatment of IBD. It also provides a reference for further evaluation and exploration of the potential of classical multi-herbal Chinese medicine in the treatment of IBD.

Assessment of Anti-Inflammatory and Antioxidant Effects of Citrus unshiu Peel (CUP) Flavonoids on LPS-Stimulated RAW 264.7 Cells

Citrus unshiu is a popular medicinal herb in several Asian countries, in particular South Korea. C. unshiu peel (CUP) has several biologically active compounds, including flavonoids. Hence, this research aimed to label the flavonoids from CUP by HPLC-MS/MS analysis and examine their anti-inflammatory and antioxidant potential on LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. A total of four flavonoids (Rutin, naringin, hesperidin, and poncirin) were characterized, and their contents were quantified from CUP. It showed that the naringin is rich in CUP. Further, treatment with the flavonoids at concentrations of 2.5 and 5 μg/mL had no effect on the cell viability of RAW 264.7 macrophages. On the other hand, it decreased the production and expression of inflammatory mediators and pro-inflammatory cytokines such as NO, PGE2, TNF-α, IL-1β, iNOS, and COX2 in the LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. In addition, flavonoids treatment inhibited the NF-κB activation by downregulating the p-p65 and p-IκBα proteins expression. Furthermore, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production considerably decreased at the same concentrations while antioxidant enzyme activity increased in the LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. Collectively, our results show that CUP flavonoids have the potential to decrease inflammation and oxidative damage.

Transferrin-Conjugated Erianin-Loaded Liposomes Suppress the Growth of Liver Cancer by Modulating Oxidative Stress

Background

Liver cancer is one of the most malignant human cancers, with few treatments and a poor prognosis. Erianin (ERN) is a natural compound with multiple pharmacological activities that has been reported to have numerous excellent effects against liver cancer in experimental systems. However, its application in vivo has been limited due to its poor aqueous solubility and numerous off-target effects. This study aimed to improve the therapeutic efficacy of ERN by developing novel ERN-loaded tumor-targeting nanoparticles.

Results

In this study, ERN was loaded into liposomes by ethanol injection (LP-ERN), and the resulting LP-ERN nanoparticles were treated with transferrin to form Tf-LP-ERN to improve the solubility and enhance the tumor-targeting of ERN. LP-ERN and Tf-LP-ERN nanoparticles had smooth surfaces and a uniform particle size, with particle diameters of 62.60 nm and 88.63 nm, respectively. In HepG2 and SMMC-7721 cells, Tf-LP-ERN induced apoptosis, decreased mitochondrial membrane potentials and increased ERN uptake more effectively than free ERN and LP-ERN. In xenotransplanted mice, Tf-LP-ERN inhibited tumor growth, but had a minimal effect on body weight and organ morphology. In addition, Tf-LP-ERN nanoparticles targeted tumors more effectively than free ERN and LP-ERN nanoparticles, and in tumor tissues Tf-LP-ERN nanoparticles promoted the cleavage PARP-1, caspase-3 and caspase-9, increased the expression levels of Bax, Bad, PUMA, and reduced the expression level of Bcl-2. Moreover, in the spleen of heterotopic tumor model BALB/c mice, ERN, LP-ERN and Tf-LP-ERN nanoparticles increased the expression levels of Nrf2, HO-1, SOD-1 and SOD-2, but reduced the expression levels of P-IKKα+β and P-NF-κB, with Tf-LP-ERN nanoparticles being most effective in this regard. Tf-LP-ERN nanoparticles also regulated the expression levels of TNF-α, IL-10 and CCL11 in serum.

Conclusion

Tf-LP-ERN nanoparticles exhibited excellent anti-liver cancer activity in vivo and in vitro by inducing cellular apoptosis, exhibiting immunoregulatory actions, and targeting tumor tissues, and did so more effectively than free ERN and LP-ERN nanoparticles. These results suggest that the clinical utility of a Tf-conjugated LP ERN-delivery system for the treatment of liver cancer warrants exploration.

Transferrin-Conjugated Erianin-Loaded Liposomes Suppress the Growth of Liver Cancer by Modulating Oxidative Stress

Background

Liver cancer is one of the most malignant human cancers, with few treatments and a poor prognosis. Erianin (ERN) is a natural compound with multiple pharmacological activities that has been reported to have numerous excellent effects against liver cancer in experimental systems. However, its application in vivo has been limited due to its poor aqueous solubility and numerous off-target effects. This study aimed to improve the therapeutic efficacy of ERN by developing novel ERN-loaded tumor-targeting nanoparticles.

Results

In this study, ERN was loaded into liposomes by ethanol injection (LP-ERN), and the resulting LP-ERN nanoparticles were treated with transferrin to form Tf-LP-ERN to improve the solubility and enhance the tumor-targeting of ERN. LP-ERN and Tf-LP-ERN nanoparticles had smooth surfaces and a uniform particle size, with particle diameters of 62.60 nm and 88.63 nm, respectively. In HepG2 and SMMC-7721 cells, Tf-LP-ERN induced apoptosis, decreased mitochondrial membrane potentials and increased ERN uptake more effectively than free ERN and LP-ERN. In xenotransplanted mice, Tf-LP-ERN inhibited tumor growth, but had a minimal effect on body weight and organ morphology. In addition, Tf-LP-ERN nanoparticles targeted tumors more effectively than free ERN and LP-ERN nanoparticles, and in tumor tissues Tf-LP-ERN nanoparticles promoted the cleavage PARP-1, caspase-3 and caspase-9, increased the expression levels of Bax, Bad, PUMA, and reduced the expression level of Bcl-2. Moreover, in the spleen of heterotopic tumor model BALB/c mice, ERN, LP-ERN and Tf-LP-ERN nanoparticles increased the expression levels of Nrf2, HO-1, SOD-1 and SOD-2, but reduced the expression levels of P-IKKα+β and P-NF-κB, with Tf-LP-ERN nanoparticles being most effective in this regard. Tf-LP-ERN nanoparticles also regulated the expression levels of TNF-α, IL-10 and CCL11 in serum.

Conclusion

Tf-LP-ERN nanoparticles exhibited excellent anti-liver cancer activity in vivo and in vitro by inducing cellular apoptosis, exhibiting immunoregulatory actions, and targeting tumor tissues, and did so more effectively than free ERN and LP-ERN nanoparticles. These results suggest that the clinical utility of a Tf-conjugated LP ERN-delivery system for the treatment of liver cancer warrants exploration.

Protective effect of Gloeostereum incarnatum on ulcerative colitis via modulation of Nrf2/NF‑κB signaling in C57BL/6 mice

Chronic non-specific inflammatory cell infiltration of the colon is generally considered to be the cause of ulcerative colitis (UC). Gloeostereum incarnatum (GI), a fungus rich in amino acids and fatty acids, exhibits a variety of biological functions. In the present study, GI was identified to contain 15 fatty acids, 17 amino acids and 11 metallic elements. The protective effect of GI against UC was investigated in C57BL/6 mice with UC induced by free drinking 3.5% dextran sulfate sodium (DSS). After a 21-day oral administration, GI prevented weight loss, enhancement of the disease activity index and colonic pathological alterations in mice with UC. GI reduced the levels of pro-inflammatory factors including interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-2, IL-6 and IL-12, tumor necrosis factor α and -β, interferon α and -γ, and pro-oxidative factors including reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide. In addition, it enhanced the levels of immunological factors including immunoglobulin (Ig)A, IgM and IgG, and antioxidative factors including superoxide dismutase and catalase in the serum and/or colon tissues. GI enhanced the expression levels of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and its downstream proteins and suppressed the phosphorylation of NF-κB signaling in colon tissues. Together, GI was shown to alleviate the physiological and pathological state of DSS-induced UC in mice via its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory functions, which may be associated with its modulation of the activation of Nrf2/NF-κB signaling.

Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects of MOK, a polyherbal extract, on lipopolysaccharide‑stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages

MOK, a pharmacopuncture medicine consisting of 10 herbs, has a long history as treatment for various inflammatory conditions. To investigate the mechanisms of action of MOK, its anti‑inflammatory and antioxidative effects were assessed in RAW 264.7 macrophages stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). RAW 264.7 cells were treated with different concentrations of MOK extract for 30 min prior to stimulation with or without LPS for the indicated times. Nitric oxide (NO) production was measured using Griess reagent, while the mRNA levels of inflammatory cytokines, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)‑α, interleukin (IL)‑1β, IL‑6 and the antioxidant enzymes Mn superoxide dismutase and heme oxygenase‑1, were determined using reverse transcription‑polymerase chain reaction analysis. Western blotting was used to determine the protein expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase (COX)‑2, superoxide dismutase (SOD)2, catalase (CAT) and heme oxygenase‑1 (HO‑1), and the phosphorylation of mitogen‑activated protein kinases (MAPKs), including ERK1/2, JNK and p38. Western blotting and immunocytochemistry were used to observe the nuclear expression of nuclear factor (NF)‑κB p65. Additionally, reactive oxygen species (ROS) and prostaglandin (PG)E2 production were determined using the ROS assay and an enzyme immunoassay. With MOK treatment, there was a notable decrease in NO and PGE2 production induced by LPS in RAW 264.7 cells by downregulation of iNOS and COX‑2 mRNA and protein expression. Furthermore, with MOK treatment, there was a decrease in the mRNA expression levels of TNF‑α, IL‑1β and IL‑6, as well as in the phosphorylation of ERK, JNK and p38 MAPK, by blocking the nuclear translocation of NF‑κB p65 in LPS‑stimulated cells. In addition, MOK treatment led to an increase in the antioxidant enzymes SOD, CAT and HO‑1 in LPS‑stimulated cells, with a concomitant decrease in ROS generation. These results indicate that the inflammatory responses in activated macrophages are inhibited by MOK through downregulation of the transcription levels of inflammatory mediators and inhibition of the MAPK/NF‑κB pathway. Moreover, MOK protects against oxidative damage by upregulating the expression of antioxidant enzymes and generating ROS scavengers.

The dietary freeze-dried fruit powder of Actinidia arguta ameliorates dextran sulphate sodium-induced ulcerative colitis in mice by inhibiting the activation of MAPKs

Oral administration freeze-dried Actinidia arguta powder could ameliorate ulcerative colitis disease via inhibiting the activation of MAPKs pathway.

Casein glycomacropeptide hydrolysates inhibit PGE2 production and COX2 expression in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cells via Akt mediated NF-κB and MAPK pathways

A casein glycomacropeptide hydrolysate (GMPH) was found to possess inhibitory activity against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory response in our previous study. In the current study, the inhibitory effect and the underlying molecular mechanism of GMPH on inflammatory response in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages were further investigated. Results showed that GMPH significantly suppressed LPS-induced intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA) production. GMPH reduced the production of prostaglandin E2 (PEG2) and the expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and cytosolic phospholipase A2 (cPLA2) in LPS-stimulated macrophages. GMPH also attenuated LPS-induced phosphorylation of MAPK (c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK), extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and p38) and protein kinase B (Akt). Furthermore, GMPH inhibited nuclear transcription factor kappa-B (NF-κB) activation by suppressing the nuclear translocation of NF-κB p65, which was markedly reversed by LY294002, an Akt inhibitor. These results demonstrated that GMPH exerts anti-inflammatory functions through the inactivation of MAPK and Akt in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages, therefore may hold potential to ameliorate inflammation-related metabolic disorders.

Effects of Chinese herbal medicines on the occurrence of diabetic retinopathy in type 2 diabetes patients and protection of ARPE-19 retina cells by inhibiting oxidative stress

Diabetic retinopathy is a microvascular complication of type 2 diabetes and the leading cause of acquired blindness. In Taiwan, Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) is a popular adjunctive therapy. In this study, we investigated the CHM prescription patterns and their effects. We identified 23,701 subjects with type 2 diabetes in a database, and after matching for age and gender, 6,948 patients each were assigned to CHM and non-CHM groups. In the female subgroups, the cumulative retinopathy probability was lower for the CHM users than that for the CHM non-users (P < 0.001, log-rank test). Among the top 10 CHMs, Jia-Wei-Xiao-Yao-San (JWXYS; 52.9%), Shu-Jing-Huo-Xue-Tang (SJHXT; 45.1%), and Ge-Gen-Tang (GGT; 43.7%) were the most common herbal formulas. Yan-Hu-Suo (48.1%), Ge-Gen (42.1%), and Huang-Qin (HQin; 40.1%) were the most common single herbs. CHM network analysis showed that JWXYS was the core CHM of cluster 1. JWXYS, DS, XF, and SZRT exhibited both of the reductions of H₂O₂-induced phosphorylation of p38 MAPK and p44/42 MAPK (Erk1/2) in human ARPE-19 retina cells. In cluster 2, SJHXT was the core CHM. SJHXT and NX showed both of the phosphorylation reductions. In cluster 3, GGT was the core CHM, and it reduced the phosphorylation of both MAPKs. In cluster 4, HQin was the core CHM, and it also reduced the phosphorylation of both MAPKs. Our study suggests that adjunctive CHM therapy may reduce diabetic retinopathy via antioxidant activity of the herbs and provides information on core CHM treatments for further scientific investigations or therapeutic interventions.

Eupatilin induces human renal cancer cell apoptosis via ROS-mediated MAPK and PI3K/AKT signaling pathways

Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT and mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling cascades have significant roles in cell proliferation, survival, angiogenesis and metastasis of tumor cells. Eupatilin, one of the major compounds present in Artemisia species, has been demonstrated to have antitumor properties. However, the effect of eupatilin in renal cell carcinoma (RCC) remains to be elucidated. Therefore, the present study investigated the biological effects and mechanisms of eupatilin in RCC cell apoptosis. The results of the present study demonstrated that eupatilin significantly induced cell apoptosis and enhanced the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in 786-O cells. In addition, eupatilin induced phosphorylation of p38α (Thr180/Tyr182), extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 and c-Jun N-terminal kinase 1/2 (Thr183/Tyr185), and decreased the phosphorylation of PI3K and AKT in 786-O cells in a concentration-dependent manner. Furthermore, the ROS inhibitor N-acetyl-L-cysteine was able to rescue the MAPK activation and PI3K/AKT inhibition induced by eupatilin. Taken together, the results of the present study provide evidence that inhibition of eupatilin induces apoptosis in human RCC via ROS-mediated activation of the MAPK signaling pathway and inhibition of the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. Thus, eupatilin may serve as a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of human RCC.