Exploratory Studies of (-)-Epicatechin, a Bioactive Compound of Phyllanthus niruri, on the Antioxidant Enzymes and Oxidative Stress Markers in D-galactosamine-induced Hepatitis in Rats: A Study with Reference to Clinical Prospective

Insight on sarcopenic obesity and epicatechin as a promising treatment option

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Sarcopenic Obesity (SO) in the elderly population is a complex and multifactorial condition which refers to the loss of skeletal muscle mass, strength, and function associated with aging, while obesity involves excessive adipose tissue accumulation. The simultaneous occurrence of these two conditions presents a unique set of challenges to public health and clinical management. This narrative review aims to provide an overview of the use of epicatechin (EC) in the treatment of SO and its related complications.

METHOD

A survey of studies related to preclinical and clinical evidence of Epicatechin in sarcopenic obesity and its complications was performed in the following database Medline, Scopus, ProQuest, Embase, Web of Science, and Google scholar. Followed by structural activity relationship and pharmacokinetic profile of Epicatechin was discussed in this paper.

RESULTS

The main pharmacological effect of Epicatechin is myostatin inhibition activity which has been described by both in vitro and in vivo studies earlier. The SO is directly correlated with the alteration of Myostatin. The pre-clinical and clinical studies suggest that epicatechin can be a potential candidate in the management of SO and its related complication.

CONCLUSION

The present review describes the pharmacokinetic profile and structural activity of epicatechin respective to SO and its related complications. The goal of this review is to update the scientific community on the therapeutic potential of epicatechin in SO and age-related factors. Conduction of clinical and pre-clinical trials, also drug dosage optimization may provide with insights on the use of epicatechin in SO.

Anti-senescence effects of Rhodiola crenulate extracts on LO2 cells and bioactive compounds

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Rhodiola crenulata (Rc) is a traditional herb, used in Tibetan medicine, has shown promise efficacy in physical performance improvement, work capacity enhancement, fatigue elimination, and altitude sickness prevention. Also, Rc exhibited therapeutic effects on aging-related diseases. However, relevant researches on Rc and their bioactive components are quite few and needs further investigation.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The objective of this study was to understand the relationship between phytochemical profiles and their activities of Rc extracts.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Rc extracts prepared by solvents with various hydrophilicity (i.e. aqueous ethanol (70%, v/v), water, and ethyl acetate), and their chemical compositions and specific compounds were analyzed by chemical analysis method and ultra-performance liquid chromatography quadruple time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF-MS). The regulate effects of Rc extracts on senescence and antioxidant activity were evaluated using the models of LO₂ cells and Caenorhabditis elegans.

RESULTS

The 70% ethanol extracts exhibited better regulating effects on senescence via the assays of senescence -associated β-galactosidase (SAβG) staining and lifespan, which was consistent with the higher antioxidant activities observed based on the results of antioxidant assays. A total of 14 phytochemicals have been identified in 70% ethanol extracts, whereas the other two extracts contained much fewer compounds in varieties. Phytochemical profile of water extract was similar to the first half (polar compounds, running time: 0-6 min) of 70% ethanol extract profile, while those of ethyl acetate extract was consistent with its second half (more nonpolar compounds, running time: 6-12 min).

CONCLUSIONS

The 14 phytochemicals in Rc might exhibit additive or synergistic effects on senescence regulating and antioxidant activities, providing theoretical basis for daily administration of Rc.

Hepatoprotective Native Plants Documented in Brazilian Traditional Medicine Literature: Current Knowledge and Prospects

The native flora of Brazil covers a large biodiversity of plants, some of which have important pharmacological properties. Ethnobotanical studies have established that the folk use of plants for hepatobiliary disorders is very common in Brazil. This review aimed to compile, describe and discuss the main native Brazilian medicinal plants used as hepatoprotective agents listed on 25 books by authors from various regions in the country. Based on the 153 species found, a comprehensive analysis of the most relevant scientific studies is presented, including Piper umbellatum, Echinodorus macrophyllus, Fevillea trilobata and Achyrocline satureioides. Some medicinal plants share both a large number of citations and scientific evidence to corroborate their hepatoprotective effects, including Solanum paniculatum, Baccharis crispa and Phyllanthus niruri, which could be of interest to develop new phytomedicines. Additionally, some active ingredients are indicated as being responsible for the liver protective effects described, particularly phenolic compounds (flavonoids, coumestans and lignans).

Hepatoprotective Effects of (-) Epicatechin in CCl4-Induced Toxicity Model Are Mediated via Modulation of Oxidative Stress Markers in Rats

Objective

(−) Epicatechin (EP) is a naturally occurring antioxidant flavonoid found in some green plants. The current study was designed to evaluate the potential role of antioxidant mechanisms in the hepatoprotective properties of EP using the carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced acute liver injury model.

Materials and Methods

Rats (n = 7 per group) were divided into five groups including control group, (−) epicatechin group (20 mg·kg⁻¹ body weight), CCl₄ group (1 mL⁻¹ body weight), CCl₄-EP treatment group, and CCl₄-silymarin (SILY) group. The levels of enzymes including hepatic malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione (GSH), catalase (CAT), glutathione S-transferase (GST), nitric oxide synthase (NOS), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and cytochrome P450 (CYP450) were analyzed via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Histological studies were performed on all groups to assess the regenerative effects of test sample and compare it with the control group.

Results

Test compound EP and standard drug silymarin (SILY) considerably reduced liver function enzyme levels in the blood, which were raised by CCl₄ administration, and increased serum albumin and total protein (TP) concentrations. The hepatic malondialdehyde (MDA) level was considerably declined, whereas glutathione (GSH), catalase (CAT), glutathione S-transferase (GST), nitric oxide synthase (NOS), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and cytochrome P450 (CYP450) levels were upregulated in the EC-treated groups. The hepatoprotective results of the study were further confirmed via the histological assessments, which indicated a regeneration of the damaged hepatic tissue in treated rats.

Conclusions

The results of this study revealed a significant protective efficacy of EP against CCl₄-induced liver injury, which was potentially mediated via upregulation of antioxidant enzymes and direct scavenging effects of the compound against free radicals.

Fruit extract of red pitaya (Hylocereus undatus) prevents and reverses stress-induced impairments in the cholinergic and antioxidant systems of Caenorhabditis elegans

The addition of fruit to the diet is very important, and we can use nutraceutical and functional foods for this supplement. A little-known fruit is a red pitaya (Hylocereus undatus) that has been widely reported to have a high antioxidant potential. In this study, we analyzed the in vitro and in vivo antioxidant capacity of microencapsulated pitaya extract on the behavior, antioxidant, and nervous system of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. The worms were treated with fruit extract before and after juglone-induced stress, to determine the protective or curative effects of pitaya. We have been evaluated cholinergic, antioxidant, and behavioral biomarkers. We have evidenced that the pulp of pitaya contains antioxidant compounds and can serve as a potential nutraceutical product. In addition, the fruit extract was effective in preventing and/or reverse the stress-induced damages, even at high levels of chemical stress at all evaluated parameters. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: The potential applications and uses aimed by this research are related to the supplementation of foods given the antioxidant effect. Our data suggested that the effect of the pitaya fruit microencapsulated pulp extract was effective to prevent and repair the damage caused by oxidative stress. Besides the use of this microencapsulated extract can be an auxiliary in the treatment of diseases related to oxidative damage as well as promoting senescent aging. Another important use is the application of this extract as a dietary supplement to fortify the antioxidant system.

Phytotherapy as Multi-Hit Therapy to Confront the Multiple Pathophysiology in Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: A Systematic Review of Experimental Interventions

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), or metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD), is a metabolic condition distinguished by fat deposition in the hepatocytes. It has a prevalence of about 25% worldwide and is associated with other conditions such as diabetes mellitus, obesity, hypertension, etc. Background and Objectives: There is currently no approved drug therapy for NAFLD. Current measures in the management of NAFLD include lifestyle modification such as an increase in physical activity or weight loss. Development of NAFLD involves a number of parallel hits: including genetic predisposition, insulin resistance, disordered lipid metabolism, mitochondrial dysfunction, lipotoxicity, oxidative stress, etc. Herbal therapy may have a role to play in the treatment of NAFLD, due to their numerous bioactive constituents and the multiple pharmacological actions they exhibit. Therefore, this systematic review aims to investigate the potential multi-targeting effects of plant-derived extracts in experimental models of NAFLD. Materials and Methods: We performed a systematic search on databases and web search engines from the earliest available date to 30 April 2021, using relevant keywords. The study included articles published in English, assessing the effects of plant-derived extracts, fractions, or polyherbal mixtures in the treatment of NAFLD in animal models. These include their effects on at least disordered lipid metabolism, insulin resistance/type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), and histologically confirmed steatosis with one or more of the following: oxidative stress, inflammation, hepatocyte injury, obesity, fibrosis, and cardiometabolic risks factors. Results: Nine articles fulfilled our inclusion criteria and the results demonstrated the ability of phytomedicines to simultaneously exert therapeutic actions on multiple targets related to NAFLD. Conclusions: These findings suggest that herbal extracts have the potential for effective treatment or management of NAFLD.

A Prospective of Multiple Biopharmaceutical Activities of Procyanidins-Rich Uapaca togoensis Pax Extracts: HPLC-ESI-TOF-MS Coupled with Bioinformatics Analysis

The article reports the chemical composition, antioxidant, six key enzymes inhibitory and antimicrobial activities of two solvent extracts (water and methanol) of leaves and stem bark of Uapaca togoensis. For chemical composition, methanol extract of stem bark exhibited significant higher total phenolic (129.86 mg GAE/g) and flavanol (10.44 mg CE/g) contents. Methanol extract of leaves and water extract of stem bark showed high flavonoids (20.94 mg RE/g) and phenolic acid (90.40 mg CAE/g) content, respectively. In addition, HPLC-ESI-TOF-MS analysis revealed that U. togoensis was rich in procyanidins. The methanol and water extracts of stem bark had overall superior antioxidant activity; however, only methanol extract of stem bark showed higher inhibition of cholinesterase (AChE: 2.57 mg GALAE/g; BChE: 4.69 mg GALAE/g), tyrosinase (69.53 mg KAE/g) and elastase (2.73 mmol CE/g). Potent metal chelating ability was showed by water extract of leaves (18.94 mg EDTAE/g), higher inhibition of amylase was detected for water extracts of leaves (0.94 mmol ACAE/g) and stem bark (0.92 mmol ACAE/g). The tested extracts have shown wide-spectrum antibacterial properties and these effects have shown to be more effective against Aspergillus ochraceus, Penicillium funiculosum, Trichoderma viride, Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The results revealed that the antioxidant, enzyme inhibitory and antimicrobial activities depended on the extraction solvents and the parts of plant. Bioinformatics analysis on the 17 major compounds showed modulation of pathway associated with cancer. In brief, U. togoensis might be valuable as potential source of natural agents for therapeutic application.

Effects of the aqueous extract of Phyllanthus niruri Linn during pregnancy and lactation on neurobehavioral parameters of rats' offspring

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Phyllanthus niruri L. (Phyllanthaceae) is a plant used in traditional medicine, mainly to treat kidney stones. However, the effects of maternal exposure to P. niruri remain poorly explored.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of administration of aqueous extract of P. niruri (AEPN) during pregnancy and lactation, in maternal toxicity, reflex maturation, and offspring memory.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Pregnant rats were divided into three groups (n = 8/group): Control (vehicle), AEPN 75, and AEPN 150 (each respectively treated with P. niruri at a dose of 75 and 150 mg/kg/day). The animals were treated via intragastric gavage during pregnancy and lactation. Weight gain, feed intake, and reproductive performance were analyzed in the mothers. In the offspring, the following tests were performed: Neonatal Reflex Ontogeny, Open Field Habituation Test and the Object Recognition Test in adulthood.

RESULTS

Maternal exposure to AEPN did not influence weight gain, feed intake, or reproductive parameters. In the offspring, anticipation of reflex ontogenesis (time of completion) was observed (p < 0.05). During adulthood, the AEPN groups presented decreases in exploratory activity upon their second exposure to the Open Field Habituation Test (in a dose-dependent manner) (p < 0.05). In the Object Recognition Test, administration of the extract at 75 and 150 mg/kg induced significant dose-dependent improvements in short and long-term memory (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Administration of the AEPN accelerated the reflex maturation in neonates, and improved offspring memory while inducing no maternal or neonatal toxicity.

(-)-Epicatechin protects from amebic liver abscess development in hamster

In this work the effect of (-)-epicatechin on the development of amebic liver abscess in hamsters was evaluated. (-)-epicatechin is a flavonoid present in plants that possesses various biological properties, including its activity against some protozoal parasites; however its antiamebic activity in a living model had not been evaluated. Syrian golden hamsters were intrahepatically inoculated with 1x10⁶E. histolytica trophozoites, three days after inoculation they received nine intraperitoneal doses of (-)-epicatechin (10 mg/100 g) every 48 h. Animals without treatments and treated with metronidazole were included as controls. Macroscopic characteristics of the hepatic abscess, histopathological analysis of the tissue and the levels of inflammatory cytokines were determined. (-)-epicatechin produced a decrease in liver abscess progression being observed only 9.49% of damage compared to 84% shown by untreated animals. During treatment with (-)-epicatechin hepatic tissue showed signs of liver repair and absence of amoebae. Additionally, (-)-epicatechin produced a modulating effect on inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-10. All these events observed in animals treated with (-)-epicatechin could contribute to the elimination of trophozoites and liver healing.

New insights on Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. leaves and stem bark extracts: UPLC-ESI-TOF-MS profiles, and biopharmaceutical and in silico analysis

Our results could provide a great scientific starting point on the way from the bench to functional applications through the use of P. reticulatus, namely novel nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals and cosmeceuticals.

In vivo Hepatoprotective and in vitro Radical Scavenging Activities of Extracts of Rumex abyssinicus Jacq. Rhizome

BACKGROUND

Liver diseases contribute a prominent global burden of mortality and morbidity. The current therapies of liver diseases have numerous limitations including severe adverse effects. This denotes that new more effective, safer, and cheaper drugs are required and medicinal plants used in traditional medicines often offer ideal opportunities. Accordingly, the present study aimed to evaluate the in vivo hepatoprotective and in vitro radical scavenging activities of dried rhizome extracts of Rumex abyssinicus (R. abyssinicus), which is traditionally claimed to provide hepatoprotection.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Hepatoprotective activity of extracts was evaluated using carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced liver injury in mice. Pre- and post-treatment models were employed to test the effect of the extracts and silymarin (standard drug). Serum biochemical markers and liver histopathology were used as parameters to evaluate hepatoprotective activities whereas in vitro radical scavenging activity was tested by 2, 2-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl hydrate (DPPH) assay.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

Oral administration of CCl4 (1 ml/kg) significantly (P<0.001) raised the serum levels of liver enzyme markers compared to the normal control group. Pre-treatment with 125, 250, and 500 mg/kg of R. abyssinicus extract reduced the serum level of CCl4-induced rise in liver enzyme markers with the highest reduction observed at a dose of 500 mg/kg. Likewise, in the post-treatment model, the crude extract and butanol fraction at dose 500 mg/kg reduced levels of liver enzymes. Histopathological examinations revealed lesser liver damage of extract-treated mice compared to the toxic (CCl4-treated) controls. The in vitro radical scavenging activity of the different extracts showed concentration-dependent radical scavenging activity. Thus, the results of this study may justify the traditional use of the plant as a hepatoprotective agent.

CONCLUSION

Results of serum biochemical markers and histopathological examinations of CCl4-induced mice models, in the present study, show the hepatoprotective potential of extracts from the rhizome of R. abyssinicus.

Maternal-fetal repercussions of Phyllanthus niruri L. treatment during rat pregnancy

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Phyllanthus niruri is a well-known plant for its therapeutic purposes to treat various diseases, being widely used by the population, mainly by women. However, there is no scientific confirmation of the effects of use during pregnancy.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Evaluating the effect of Phyllanthus niruri aqueous extract on the maternal toxicity, reproductive outcomes and fetal anomaly incidence in rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Pregnant rats were distributed into four experimental groups: Control = treated with water (vehicle); Treated 150 = treated with P. niruri at dose 150 mg/kg and; Treated 300 = treated with P. niruri at dose 300 mg/kg; and Treated 600 = treated with P. niruri at dose 600 mg/kg. The rats were treated by intragastric route (gavage) with P. niruri or vehicle (water) from gestational day 0 to 21. At day 21 of pregnancy, maternal reproductive outcomes, biochemical profile and maternal renal tissue were evaluated. The fetuses and placentas were collected and analyzed.

RESULTS

Treatment with P. niruri did not alter the reproductive performance outcomes of rats. However, treated 600 group presented with changes in maternal kidney weight and morphology. The plant did not present teratogenic effect, but caused fetal macrosomia and increased ossification sites.

CONCLUSION

Treatment with aqueous extract of P. niruri administered during gestation did not cause reproductive toxicity, but led to changes in maternal kidneys and in offspring weight, showing that the leaf extract of this plant can produce detrimental effects during pregnancy.

Role of Natural Phenolics in Hepatoprotection: A Mechanistic Review and Analysis of Regulatory Network of Associated Genes

The liver is not only involved in metabolism and detoxification, but also participate in innate immune function and thus exposed to frequent target Thus, they are the frequent target of physical injury. Interestingly, liver has the unique ability to regenerate and completely recoup from most acute, non-iterative situation. However, multiple conditions, including viral hepatitis, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, long term alcohol abuse and chronic use of medications can cause persistent injury in which regenerative capacity eventually becomes dysfunctional resulting in hepatic scaring and cirrhosis. Despite the recent therapeutic advances and significant development of modern medicine, hepatic diseases remain a health problem worldwide. Thus, the search for the new therapeutic agents to treat liver disease is still in demand. Many synthetic drugs have been demonstrated to be strong radical scavengers, but they are also carcinogenic and cause liver damage. Present day various hepatic problems are encountered with number of synthetic and plant based drugs. Nexavar (sorafenib) is a chemotherapeutic medication used to treat advanced renal cell carcinoma associated with several side effects. There are a few effective varieties of herbal preparation like Liv-52, silymarin and Stronger neomin phages (SNMC) against hepatic complications. Plants are the huge repository of bioactive secondary metabolites viz; phenol, flavonoid, alkaloid etc. In this review we will try to present exclusive study on phenolics with its mode of action mitigating liver associated complications. And also its future prospects as new drug lead.

UPLC-HRMS and NMR applied in the evaluation of solid-phase extraction methods as a rational strategy of dereplication of Phyllanthus spp. aiming at the discovery of cytotoxic metabolites

The classical approach to drug discovery from natural products (NP's) requires strenuous and complex purification steps for the isolation and structural elucidation. Modern strategies as dereplication aim to accelerate the identification of known compounds present in a crude or partially purified extract. In this work, we investigated the influence of the solid-phase extraction (Oasis, Plexa, and Agilent C18 cartridges with and without organic modifiers) chemical profile obtained by UPLC-QTOF-MS and NMR and cytotoxicities of aqueous extracts from Phyllanthus niruri and P. amarus. Our results showed differences between the SPE cartridges and the mass recovered. P. niruri showed higher mass recovery than P. amarus indicating a higher amount of secondary metabolites. The UPLC-QTOF-MS analysis revealed that P. niruri crude extract presents higher contents of phenolic compounds than P. amarus. According to NMR analysis, P. niruri contained more tyrosine, corilagin, and glycosidic residues while P. amarus, presented higher content of ellagic acid. The different stationary phases, as well as mobile phases for exploratory SPE, enabled the exploitation of the different chemical functionalities within the Phyllanthus species. The SPE (MeOH:H₂O 70:30 with C18 cartridges) samples showed greater in vitro cytotoxicity than the crude extracts, with IC₅₀ ranging from 8.01 to 94.92 μg mL^-1 against the tumor lines tested. The solid phase extraction allowed the concentration of molecules with desirable physicochemical characteristics, which might increase the hit of therapeutically useful substances.

Phyllanthus Niruri Standardized Extract Alleviates the Progression of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease and Decreases Atherosclerotic Risk in Sprague-Dawley Rats

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is one of the major global health issues, strongly correlated with insulin resistance, obesity and oxidative stress. The current study aimed to evaluate anti-NAFLD effects of three different extracts of Phyllanthus niruri (P. niruri). NAFLD was induced in male Sprague-Dawley rats using a special high-fat diet (HFD). A 50% methanolic extract (50% ME) exhibited the highest inhibitory effect against NAFLD progression. It significantly reduced hepatomegaly (16%) and visceral fat weight (22%), decreased NAFLD score, prevented fibrosis, and reduced serum total cholesterol (TC) (48%), low-density lipoprotein (LDL) (65%), free fatty acids (FFAs) (25%), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) (45%), alkaline phosphatase (ALP) (38%), insulin concentration (67%), homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) (73%), serum atherogenic ratios TC/high-density lipoprotein (HDL) (29%), LDL/HDL (66%) and (TC-HDL)/HDL (64%), hepatic content of cholesterol (43%), triglyceride (29%) and malondialdehyde (MDA) (40%) compared to a non-treated HFD group. In vitro, 50% ME of P. niruri inhibited α-glucosidase, pancreatic lipase enzymes and cholesterol micellization. It also had higher total phenolic and total flavonoid contents compared to other extracts. Ellagic acid and phyllanthin were identified as major compounds. These results suggest that P. niruri could be further developed as a novel natural hepatoprotective agent against NAFLD and atherosclerosis.