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Vazirani S, Kothari A, Fujimoto J, Gomez M. Supplements Are Not a Synonym for Safe: Suspected Liver Injury From Ashwagandha. Fed Pract 2023; 40:315-319. [PMID: 38562158 PMCID: PMC10984693 DOI: 10.12788/fp.0409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
Background As patients look more to alternative herbal and dietary supplements to boost energy and mood, reports are increasing of unintended adverse effects, particularly to the liver. Case Presentation We report a case of a 48-year-old man with a history of severe alcohol use disorder who presented to the emergency department with a cholestatic pattern of liver injury in the setting of alcohol and use of a testosterone-boosting supplement containing ashwagandha. Conclusions Drug-induced liver damage should be considered in patients with alcohol use disorder who present with a cholestatic pattern of liver injury. Although many natural substances are well tolerated, others can have unanticipated and harmful adverse effects and drug interactions. Future research should identify not only potentially harmful substances, but also which patients may be at greatest risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sondra Vazirani
- Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, California
| | - Amit Kothari
- Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, California
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Sheik SM, Bakthavatchalam P, Shenoy RP, Hadapad BS, Nayak M D, Biswas M, Bolar Suryakanth V. Anti-hyperglycemic, anti-hyperlipidemic, and anti-inflammatory effect of the drug Guggulutiktaka ghrita on high-fat diet-induced obese rats. J Ayurveda Integr Med 2022; 13:100583. [PMID: 35759880 PMCID: PMC9250015 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaim.2022.100583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2021] [Revised: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Ayurveda is a holistic system of medicine and describes a vast array of herbs and herbal mixtures that are been demonstrated to possess efficacy in research investigations. Guggulutikthaka gritha (GTG) is one such drug evaluated for its role in skin and bone diseases. Objective In the current study, the hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, and anti-inflammatory effect of the drug GTG was studied with the scope to treat dyslipidemia and thereby reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. Materials and method The animals (Wistar rats) were fed a high-fat diet and dyslipidemia was induced. The control group was provided with a normal chow diet and had free access to water. The treatment with the drug GTG was given for 21 days after confirming dyslipidemia. The blood glucose was measured immediately using a glucometer. The serum was analyzed for lipid profile and Vascular Cell Adhesion Molecule – 1(VCAM 1) by ELISA method before and after treatment. The histopathology of the heart and liver was also performed. Results The abnormal change in lipid profile, blood glucose, and inflammatory marker along with the accumulation of intracellular fats in the arteries of the heart and liver confirmed dyslipidemia. A significant reduction in serum lipid profile (p < 0.05), blood glucose (p < 0.05), and VCAM 1 (p < 0.05) was noted after the treatment with significant histopathological changes in arteries of the heart and liver. Conclusion The study provides scientific validation on the drug GTG being effective in hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, and inflammation in dyslipidemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samreen M Sheik
- Department of Biochemistry, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, 576104, India
| | - Pugazhandhi Bakthavatchalam
- Department of Anatomy, Melaka Manipal Medical College, Manipal, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, 576104, India
| | - Revathi P Shenoy
- Department of Biochemistry, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, 576104, India
| | - Basavaraj S Hadapad
- Division of Ayurveda, Centre for Integrative Medicine and Research, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, 576104, India
| | - Deepak Nayak M
- Department of Pathology, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, 576104, India
| | - Monalisa Biswas
- Department of Biochemistry, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, 576104, India
| | - Varashree Bolar Suryakanth
- Department of Biochemistry, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, 576104, India.
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Jadhav SS. Ayurveda in the management of infant hyperlipidemia: A case report. J Ayurveda Integr Med 2022; 13:100517. [PMID: 34844842 PMCID: PMC8728053 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaim.2021.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Revised: 08/11/2021] [Accepted: 08/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Hypertriglyceridemia is a rare disorder in childhood. Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome (FCS) is a rare genetic disease that leads to severe hypertriglyceridemia, often associated with recurrent episodes of pancreatitis. In this syndrome, traditional lipid-lowering drugs are marginally effective. A 6-months-old infant with complaints of recurrent episodes of abdominal colic and pancreatitis, with S. Cholesterol 552 mg% and Triglycerides 6400 mg%, was treated with Ayurvedic medicines. After six months of medication, Serum Cholesterol levels were within normal limits, and within the three years of regular treatment, S. Triglycerides was under 2000 mg%. Recurrent episodes of acute abdominal colic and vomiting reduced significantly. The patient was treated for Kapha Pitta dushti in Rasa and Raktavah srotas (deformity of the Kapha Pitta humors in the tissue nourishment pathway of the first and the second tissue respectively). Laghoo Sootshekhar, Arogyavardhini, Tinospora cordifolia, Cyprus rotundus, Aegle marmelos, Berberis aristata, Vettiveria zizanioides, and Triphala were the medicines used frequently. The three years treatment was safe and effective. Cost-effectiveness was an added feature of this treatment. Clinical experience of this case shows that congenital hyperlipidemia can manage by Ayurvedic medicine.
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Narayana DBA, Durg S. Ayurveda: (W)here is the evidence. J Ayurveda Integr Med 2020; 12:408-411. [PMID: 32951967 PMCID: PMC8185965 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaim.2020.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2020] [Revised: 06/21/2020] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
It is common to hear a general statement that Ayurveda lacks scientific evidence. By scientific evidence, it is commonly referred to results of human clinical trials undertaken adoring those applied to pharmaceuticals, involving randomized controlled trials (RCT), either a placebo or active controlled. This paper explores the actual situation related to practice of Ayurveda, use of medicines, application of therapies, and the individual dravyas (ingredients). It gives few examples and availability of large body of scientific data in this area. The study, however, does not discuss the reasons and problems of conducting RCTs.
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Affiliation(s)
- D B Anantha Narayana
- Ayurvidye Trust, 1101/927, 1 F Main, 2nd Stage, Girinagar, Bangalore 560085, India.
| | - Sharanbasappa Durg
- H. No. 19-5-244/15, Ganachari Layout, Near Lumbini Nagar, Naubad, Bidar 585402, India
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Wan P, Chen D, Chen H, Zhu X, Chen X, Sun H, Pan J, Cai B. Hypolipidemic effects of protein hydrolysates from Trachinotus ovatus and identification of peptides implied in bile acid-binding activity using LC-ESI-Q-TOF-MS/MS. RSC Adv 2020; 10:20098-20109. [PMID: 35520431 PMCID: PMC9054252 DOI: 10.1039/d0ra02428g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 05/15/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
In the present work, analysis of the hypolipidemic properties of Trachinotus ovatus protein hydrolysates (TOPHs) and identification of peptides with bile acid-binding activity were performed. Hydrolysates prepared by trypsin digestion exhibited the highest in vitro bile acid-binding capacities compared with hydrolysates prepared with the other four proteases and were mainly composed of small peptides and amino acids with molecular weights <3 kDa, accounting for 77.30%. Among the five ultra-filtration fractions of TOPHs, TOPHs-5 (<3 kDa) exhibited the highest in vitro bile acid-binding capacity, which was equivalent to 77.97% of cholestyramine at the same concentration. A total of 68 peptides were identified from TOPHs-5 by LC-ESI-Q-TOF-MS/MS and 9 of them had hydrophobicity of more than 60%. These highly hydrophobic peptides might be associated with the bile acid-binding activity of TOPHs-5. In vivo experiments indicated that the TOPHs could effectively reduce total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and the atherogenic index (AI), while they could evidently increase the high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) content. Furthermore, TOPHs exerted a marked protective effect on hepatorenal function, as evidenced by decreased levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and creatinine (CREA). Histopathological studies confirmed that TOPHs evidently protected the liver from histological alterations. In summary, for the first time, hypolipidemic effects and subsequential identification were obtained from TOPHs, which are promising natural ingredients that could potentially be employed in the management of hyperlipidemia. For the first time, the hypolipidemic effect of Trachinotus ovatus protein hydrolysates was obtained and its active peptides were identified.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Wan
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Marine Materia Medica
- South China Sea Institute of Oceanology
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Guangzhou
| | - Deke Chen
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Marine Materia Medica
- South China Sea Institute of Oceanology
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Guangzhou
| | - Hua Chen
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Marine Materia Medica
- South China Sea Institute of Oceanology
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Guangzhou
| | - Xiaolian Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Marine Materia Medica
- South China Sea Institute of Oceanology
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Guangzhou
| | - Xin Chen
- School of Environment and Chemical Engineering
- Foshan University
- Foshan
- China
| | - Huili Sun
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Marine Materia Medica
- South China Sea Institute of Oceanology
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Guangzhou
| | - Jianyu Pan
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Marine Materia Medica
- South China Sea Institute of Oceanology
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Guangzhou
| | - Bingna Cai
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Marine Materia Medica
- South China Sea Institute of Oceanology
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Guangzhou
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Chemical Compositions of Metals in Bhasmas and Tibetan Zuotai Are a Major Determinant of Their Therapeutic Effects and Toxicity. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2019; 2019:1697804. [PMID: 30941186 PMCID: PMC6421027 DOI: 10.1155/2019/1697804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2018] [Revised: 11/30/2018] [Accepted: 12/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Minerals are alchemically processed as Bhasmas in Ayurvedic medicines or as Zuotai in Tibetan medicines. Ayurveda is a knowledge system of longevity and considers the mineral elixir made from “nature” capable of giving humans perpetual life. Herbo-metallic preparations have a long history in the treatment of various diseases in India, China, and around the world. Their disposition, pharmacology, efficacy, and safety require scientific evaluation. This review discusses the Bhasmas in Ayurvedic medicines and Zuotai in Tibetan medicines for their occurrence, bioaccessibility, therapeutic use, pharmacology, toxicity, and research perspectives. A literature search on Mineral, Bhasma, Ayurvedic medicine, Zuotai, Tibetan medicine, and Metals/metalloids from PubMed, Google and other sources was carried out, and the relevant papers on their traditional use, pharmacology, and toxicity were selected and analyzed. Minerals are processed to form Bhasma or Zuotai to alter their physiochemical properties distinguishing them from environmental metals. The metals found in Ayurveda are mainly from the intentional addition in the form of Bhasma or Zuotai. Bhasma and Zuotai are often used in combination with other herbals and/or animal-based products as mixtures. The advanced technologies are now utilized to characterize herbo-metallic preparations as Quality Assurance/Quality Control. The bioaccessibility, absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination of herbo-metallic preparations are different from environmental metals. The pharmacological basis of Bhasma in Ayurveda and Zuotai in Tibetan medicines and their interactions with drugs require scientific research. Although the toxic potentials of Bhasma and Zuotai differ from environmental metals, the metal poisoning case reports, especially lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), and arsenic (As) from inappropriate use of traditional medicines, are increasing, and pharmacovigilance is desired. In risk assessment, chemical forms of metals in Bhasma and Zuotai should be considered for their disposition, efficacy, and toxicity.
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Kean JD, Downey LA, Stough C. Systematic Overview of Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst. Dominant Poly-Herbal Formulas in Children and Adolescents. MEDICINES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2017; 4:medicines4040086. [PMID: 29165401 PMCID: PMC5750610 DOI: 10.3390/medicines4040086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2017] [Revised: 11/16/2017] [Accepted: 11/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Background: The Ayurvedic medicinal system employs a holistic approach to health, utilising the synergistic properties of organic resources. Research into the Ayurvedic herb Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst. (B.monnieri) has reported improvements in cognitive outcomes in child and adult populations. The aim of current review is to systematically assess and critically summarize clinical trials investigating B.monnieri-dominant poly-herbal formulas and their effects on the cognition, memory, learning, and behaviour in children and adolescents. Methods: Key word searches were performed using PubMed, Scopus, Cochrane Library, DHARA, and CINAHL for publications meeting inclusion criteria up to November 2017. There were no restrictions in study design. Effect sizes were calculated for all significant findings to allow for direct comparisons, and each study was evaluated on design quality. Cognitive and behavioural outcomes were grouped into validated constructs for cross-study comparison. Results: Nine trials met inclusion criteria. Five studies reported sufficient data for effect size analysis with most improvements reported in behavioural outcomes. True cognitive abilities and behavioural constructs were reviewed in six studies, with visual perception, impulsivity, and attention demonstrating the greatest improvements. The veracity of the evidence for the formulations reviewed is weakened by inconsistent statistical design and under-reporting of safety and tolerability data (44%). Conclusions: The current review extends research supporting B.monnieri as a cognitive enhancer and provides modest evidence for the use of B.monnieri in poly-herbal preparations for improving cognitive and behavioural outcomes in child and adolescent populations. Greater emphasis on statistical vigour and the reporting of tolerability data are essential for future trials to adequately document poly-herbal treatment efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- James D Kean
- Centre for Human Psychopharmacology, Swinburne University, Melbourne 3122, Australia.
| | - Luke A Downey
- Centre for Human Psychopharmacology, Swinburne University, Melbourne 3122, Australia.
- Institute for Breathing and Sleep, Austin Hospital, Melbourne 3084, Australia.
| | - Con Stough
- Centre for Human Psychopharmacology, Swinburne University, Melbourne 3122, Australia.
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Wijenayake AU, Abayasekara CL, Pitawala HMTGA, Bandara BMR. Antimicrobial potential of two traditional herbometallic drugs against certain pathogenic microbial species. Altern Ther Health Med 2016; 16:365. [PMID: 27632980 PMCID: PMC5025548 DOI: 10.1186/s12906-016-1336-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2015] [Accepted: 09/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Background Mineral based preparations are widely used for centuries as antimicrobial agents. However, the efficacy and the mode of action of mineral based preparations are uncertain due to the insufficient antimicrobial studies. Arogyawardhana Vati (AV) and Manikya Rasa (MR) are such two Rasashastra herbo-minerallic drugs commonly in India and other countries in South Asia. Despite of their well known traditional use of skin diseases, reported antimicrobial and mineralogical studies are limited. Therefore, in this study antimicrobial activities of the drugs and their organic, inorganic fractions were evaluated against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherischia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Methecilline Resistance Staphylococcus aureus - MRSA and Candida albicans. Methods Antimicrobial activity of the drugs, their inorganic residues and organic extracts were determined using four assay techniques viz agar well diffusion, modified well diffusion, Miles and Misra viable cell counting and broth turbidity measurements. Mineralogical constituents of the drugs were determined using X-ray diffraction, while total cation constituents and water soluble cation constituents were determined using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometer and the atomic absorption spectrophotometer respectively. Thermogravimetric analysis was used to determine the weight percentages of organic and inorganic fraction of the drugs. Particle sizes of the drugs were determined using the particle size analyzer. Results AV and MR drugs showed antibacterial activity against both gram positive and gram negative bacterial species when analyzed separately. Inorganic residues of the drugs and organic extracts showed activity at least against two or more bacterial species tested. All tested components were inactive against C. albicans. Common mineral constituents of drugs are cinnabar, biotite and Fe-rich phases. Drugs were rich in essential elements such as Na, K, Ca, Mg and Fe and toxic elements such as Zn, Cu and As. However, the water soluble concentrations of the toxic elements were below the detection limits. Both drugs have significantly higher percentages of organic constituents and volatile minerals and particle sizes of drugs are in the nanometer range. Conclusions AV and MR Rasashastra preparations could provide alternatives to synthetic antibiotics against human bacterial infections. Improved solubility and reduced particle sizes are influential physicochemical properties used to enhance the antimicrobial efficacy of the drugs. Therefore, traditional knowledge on the use of antimicrobial mineral sources could provide a novel path for the producing of effective antimicrobial drugs. However, further chemical and toxicological studies are urgently needed for a greater understanding of their toxicity to humans.
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Abstract
Terminalia arjuna, commonly known as arjuna, belongs to the family of Combretaceae. Its bark decoction is being used in the Indian subcontinent for anginal pain, hypertension, congestive heart failure, and dyslipidemia, based on the observations of ancient physicians for centuries. The utility of arjuna in various cardiovascular diseases needs to be studied further. Therefore, the present review is an effort to give a detailed survey of the literature summarizing the experimental and clinical studies pertinent to arjuna in cardiovascular disorders, which were particularly performed during the last decade. Systematic reviews, meta-analyses, and clinical studies of arjuna were retrieved through the use of PubMed, Google Scholar, and Cochrane databases. Most of the studies, both experimental and clinical, have suggested that the crude drug possesses anti-ischemic, antioxidant, hypolipidemic, and antiatherogenic activities. Its useful phytoconstituents are: Triterpenoids, β-sitosterol, flavonoids, and glycosides. Triterpenoids and flavonoids are considered to be responsible for its beneficial antioxidant cardiovascular properties. The drug has shown promising effect on ischemic cardiomyopathy. So far, no serious side effects have been reported with arjuna therapy. However, its long-term safety still remains to be elucidated. Though it has been found quite useful in angina pectoris, mild hypertension, and dyslipidemia, its exact role in primary/secondary coronary prevention is yet to be explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shridhar Dwivedi
- Department of Medicine and Preventive Cardiology, Hamdard Institute of Medical Sciences and Research, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India
| | - Deepti Chopra
- Department of Pharmacology, Hamdard Institute of Medical Sciences and Research, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India
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Choudhari AS, Raina P, Deshpande MM, Wali AG, Zanwar A, Bodhankar SL, Kaul-Ghanekar R. Evaluating the anti-inflammatory potential of Tectaria cicutaria L. rhizome extract in vitro as well as in vivo. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2013; 150:215-222. [PMID: 23993910 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2013.08.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2013] [Revised: 08/02/2013] [Accepted: 08/10/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE The rhizome of Tectaria cicutaria has been used in the folklore system of Indian traditional medicine (Ayurveda) for the treatment of various disorders such as rheumatic pain, chest complaints, burns, sprain, poisonous bites, tonsilitis, toothache, gum complaints, cuts and wounds. The present work has for the first time tried to elucidate the anti-inflammatory potential of aqueous extract of Tectaria cicutaria rhizome (TCRaq) in vitro as well as in vivo. MATERIALS AND METHODS Anti-inflammatory potential of TCRaq was analyzed in vivo in carrageenan induced rat paw edema model. Serum antioxidant status in TCRaq-treated as well as untreated control rodents was measured by oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) assay. In vitro experiments for analyzing the anti-inflammatory potential of TCRaq were performed on murine macrophage cell line, RAW 264.7. Analysis of nitric oxide release in RAW 264.7 cells was done by Griess reaction. RT-PCR and western blotting experiment was performed to analyze the expression of iNOS. Expression of COX-2 and NFκB proteins was evaluated by western blotting. RESULTS TCRaq significantly reduced the paw volume in Sprague-Dawley rats at a dose of 200mg/kg body weight, which was comparable with the standard diclofenac treatment. The rats treated with TCRaq showed a significant increase in the serum antioxidant levels compared to the untreated control animals. TCRaq was able to reduce the nitric oxide (NO) levels in RAW 264.7 cells that had been stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). This was accompanied by a corresponding decrease in iNOS expression at mRNA and protein level. Interestingly, TCRaq was found to decrease the expression of COX-2 as well as the nuclear translocation of NFκB in RAW 264.7 cells. CONCLUSION Our study signifies the anti-inflammatory potential of Tectaria cicutaria and scientifically validates its traditional use in inflammatory conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit S Choudhari
- Interactive Research School for Health Affairs (IRSHA), Bharati Vidyapeeth University, Katraj-Dhankawadi, Pune-Satara Road, Pune-411043, Maharashtra, India
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