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Zahavi E, Lev-Shalem L, Yehoshua I, Adler L. Methylphenidate use and misuse among medical residents in Israel: a cross-sectional study. HUMAN RESOURCES FOR HEALTH 2023; 21:5. [PMID: 36721145 PMCID: PMC9890881 DOI: 10.1186/s12960-023-00792-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2022] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Methylphenidate (MPH) and other stimulants may be misused, mainly as cognitive enhancers and recreational drugs. Data regarding misuse among medical residents are scarce. This study aimed to evaluate the prevalence of and main reasons for methylphenidate (MPH) use and misuse among Israeli medical residents. METHODS In this cross-sectional study, we sent an online questionnaire to medical residents who had completed their first residency exam and specialists with up to 2 years of experience. We asked about the use of MPH before and during residency and attitudes toward the use of MPH as a cognitive enhancer. We also added the Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale (ASRS) questionnaire, a validated tool used to screen for the presence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Users and misusers were classified based on self-report of use and formal ADHD diagnosis. Logistic regression analysis was used to evaluate factors associated with MPH misuse. RESULTS From March 2021 to August 2021, 370 physicians responded to our questionnaire (response rate 26.4%). Twenty-eight met the exclusion criteria and were not included. The respondents' average age was 36.5 years. Women comprised 63.5% of the respondents. Of the participants, 16.4% were classified as users and 35.1% as misusers. The prevalence of misusers was 45.6% among surgery and OB/GYN physicians, 39.4% among pediatricians and internists, and 24% among family physicians (P < 0.001). Misusers had a more liberal approach than others to MPH use as a cognitive enhancer. Factors associated with misuse of MPH included not being a native-born Israeli (OR-1.99, 95% CI 1.08, 3.67) and type of residency (OR-2.33, 95% CI 1.22, 4.44 and OR-4.08, 95% CI 2.06, 8.07 for pediatrics and internal medicine and surgery, respectively). CONCLUSION Very high levels of MPH misuse during residency may be related to stress, long working hours, night shifts, and the academic burden of the residency period. We believe that our findings should be considered by healthcare policymakers as they make decisions regarding the conditions of medical residencies. The use of MPH as a cognitive enhancer should be further studied and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eden Zahavi
- Health Division, Maccabi Healthcare Services, 27 Ha'mered St., Tel Aviv, Israel
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Siaal Research Center for Family Medicine and Primary Care, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Liat Lev-Shalem
- Health Division, Maccabi Healthcare Services, 27 Ha'mered St., Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Ilan Yehoshua
- Health Division, Maccabi Healthcare Services, 27 Ha'mered St., Tel Aviv, Israel
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Siaal Research Center for Family Medicine and Primary Care, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Limor Adler
- Health Division, Maccabi Healthcare Services, 27 Ha'mered St., Tel Aviv, Israel.
- Department of Family Medicine, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv, Israel.
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Etheridge T, Kennedy B, Millar MM, Brintz BJ, Wu C, Pettey J. Cognitive enhancing supplements and medications in United States Resident Physicians. BMC MEDICAL EDUCATION 2022; 22:744. [PMID: 36303156 PMCID: PMC9615194 DOI: 10.1186/s12909-022-03778-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2022] [Revised: 09/10/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The use of cognitive-enhancing medications and supplements among healthy adults continues to rise. Limited data exists on their use among resident physicians. Given their highly competitive and stressful lifestyle, we sought to evaluate the prevalence, motivations, and side effects of using cognitive-enhancing supplements and medications among resident physicians at a large United States academic institution. METHODS An anonymous web-based survey was circulated to resident physicians inquiring about using cognitive-enhancing supplements and medications, as well as personal characteristics such as gender, marital and parental status, medical diagnoses, and medical specialty. Before circulation, we performed a pilot study. Weighted logistic regression analyses estimated the impact of personal characteristics on the probability of using both supplements and medications. RESULTS Survey response rate was 46.4%. Of respondents, 48.6% were female, 45.9% were married, 70.9% were without children, and 67.2% were in a non-surgical medical specialty. Few respondents had a related medical diagnosis, with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder being the most common (7.1%). Male, non-married, surgical residents were more likely to take supplements (odds ratio (OR) = 1.06, 1.05, and 1.05). Males, without children, and those who felt pressure to perform well, were afraid of being left behind, felt pressure because colleagues take them, or felt they could not reach their current level of training without medications were more likely to take medications (OR = 1.11, 1.04, 1.05, and 1.08). Adverse effects with medications were common. CONCLUSION Supplement and medication use for cognitive enhancement was high among resident physicians at a single institution despite few having a related medical diagnosis. This study raises awareness of the growing pressure in competitive residency environments to use cognitive enhancement regardless of the potential side effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler Etheridge
- Department of Ophthalmology, John A. Moran Eye Center, University of Utah, 65 Mario Capecchi Dr, 84123, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.
| | - Brandon Kennedy
- Department of Ophthalmology, John A. Moran Eye Center, University of Utah, 65 Mario Capecchi Dr, 84123, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Morgan M Millar
- Division of Epidemiology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Ben J Brintz
- Division of Epidemiology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Chaorong Wu
- Division of Epidemiology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Jeff Pettey
- Department of Ophthalmology, John A. Moran Eye Center, University of Utah, 65 Mario Capecchi Dr, 84123, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
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Yuan A, King N, Kharas N, Yang P, Dafny N. The effect of environment on cross-sensitization between methylphenidate and amphetamine in female rats. Physiol Behav 2022; 252:113845. [PMID: 35594929 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2022.113845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Revised: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Methylphenidate (MPD) and amphetamine (AMP) are both psychostimulants that are often used to treat behavioral disorders. More recently, it has also been increasingly used illicitly for recreation as well as to improve intellectual performance. Many factors such as age, gender, genetic background, and environment govern the development of behavioral sensitization to MPD and cross-sensitization with other drugs, which are experimental behavioral markers indicating potential of substance dependence and abuse. This study examines the effects of the environment and age when MPD was exposed in adulthood alone as well as in adolescence into adulthood on cross-sensitization with AMP in female SD rats by randomizing animals to either receive the drug in a home cage or a test cage during adolescence, adulthood, or both. In a 34 day experiment, 16 groups of animals starting in adolescence were treated with saline on experimental day one (ED1), followed by a 6 day (ED2-ED7) treatment with either saline, 0.6 mg/kg AMP, 0.6, 2.5, or 10.0 mg/kg MPD. Experimental groups were then subject to a 3-day washout period (ED8-ED10) and then a retreatment with the respective drug on ED11 in adolescence (P-38 to P-49). Experiments continued in the same animal groups now in adulthood (P-60) with a saline treatment (ED1), followed by the same sequence of treatments in adolescence (ED2-ED11;P-61 to P-69). A rechallenge with the same AMP or MPD dose was performed on ED11 (P-70) followed by a single exposure to 0.6 mg/kg AMP on ED12 (P-71) to assess for cross sensitization between MPD and AMP. Animals treated with MPD in both adolescence and adulthood and in the last experimental day of AMP (ED12) showed higher intensity of cross-sensitivity between MPD and AMP as compared to animals treated with MPD only in adulthood. AMP and MPD treatment in adolescence and into adulthood in the home or test cage resulted in significantly higher responses to the drug as compared to those treated only in adulthood. Overall, we conclude that environmental alteration and adolescent exposure to MPD appeared to increase the risk of cross-sensitization to AMP in female SD rats i.e, using MPD in adolescence may increase the probability of becoming dependent on drugs of abuse. This further indicates that age, sex, and environment all influence the response to MPD and AMP, and further work is needed to elucidate the risks associated with MPD and AMP use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Yuan
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, University of Texas Health at the McGovern Medical School, 6431 Fannin Street, MSB 7.208, Houston, TX 77030, United States
| | - Nicholas King
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, University of Texas Health at the McGovern Medical School, 6431 Fannin Street, MSB 7.208, Houston, TX 77030, United States
| | - Natasha Kharas
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, University of Texas Health at the McGovern Medical School, 6431 Fannin Street, MSB 7.208, Houston, TX 77030, United States
| | - Pamela Yang
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, University of Texas Health at the McGovern Medical School, 6431 Fannin Street, MSB 7.208, Houston, TX 77030, United States
| | - Nachum Dafny
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, University of Texas Health at the McGovern Medical School, 6431 Fannin Street, MSB 7.208, Houston, TX 77030, United States.
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Batista da Costa L, Sousa JOD, Silva SVBDF, Almeida VDD, Fernandes TAADM. Non-medical use of methylphenidate by medical students: prevalence and motivations. Integrative review. REVISTA CIÊNCIAS EM SAÚDE 2021. [DOI: 10.21876/rcshci.v11i2.1042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: This study performed a literature review evaluating aspects of prevalence and motivations on the non-medical use of methylphenidate by medical students. Methods: We searched the Scopus, PubMed, SciELO, and Web of Science databases and the Google Scholar search tool using the keywords "Methylphenidate" and "Medical Student" and their correlates in Portuguese. A total of 472 articles were recovered, of which 24 were included for full reading and discussion after the application of the pre-established inclusion and exclusion criteria. Results: It was observed that the prevalence of non-prescribed use of methylphenidate ranged from 0.51% in Lithuania to 35% in Colombia. The main motivations reported for using the drug were academic outcomes improvement and increase in concentration during studies, although research shows no significant improvement in academic performance with the use of medication by healthy individuals. Conclusion: The non-prescribed use of methylphenidate presents a high and worrying frequency. Also, scientific studies questioning the use of psychostimulant medications for cognitive improvement by healthy students make the practice illegal and unfounded.
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Massuti R, Moreira-Maia CR, Campani F, Sônego M, Amaro J, Akutagava-Martins GC, Tessari L, Polanczyk GV, Cortese S, Rohde LA. Assessing undertreatment and overtreatment/misuse of ADHD medications in children and adolescents across continents: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 128:64-73. [PMID: 34089763 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2020] [Revised: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A controversy exists on whether there is an over or underuse of medications for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). We conducted the first meta-analysis to estimate the rate of ADHD pharmacological treatment in both diagnosed and undiagnosed individuals. Based on a pre-registered protocol (CRD42018085233), we searched a broad set of electronic databases and grey literature. After screening 25,676 abstracts, we retained 36 studies including 104,305 subjects, from which 18 studies met our main analysis criteria. The pooled pharmacological treatment rates were 19.1 % and 0.9 % in school-age children/adolescents with and without ADHD, respectively. We estimated that for each individual using medication without a formal ADHD diagnosis, there are three patients with a formal diagnosis who might benefit from medication but do not receive it in the US. Our results indicate both overtreatment/misuse of medication in individuals without ADHD and pharmacological undertreatment in youths with the disorder. Our findings reinforce the need for public health policies improving education on ADHD and discussions on the benefits and limitations of ADHD medications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Massuti
- ADHD Outpatient Program & Developmental Psychiatry Program, Hospital de Clinica de Porto Alegre, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Carlos Renato Moreira-Maia
- ADHD Outpatient Program & Developmental Psychiatry Program, Hospital de Clinica de Porto Alegre, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Fausto Campani
- ADHD Outpatient Program & Developmental Psychiatry Program, Hospital de Clinica de Porto Alegre, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Márcio Sônego
- ADHD Outpatient Program & Developmental Psychiatry Program, Hospital de Clinica de Porto Alegre, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Julia Amaro
- ADHD Outpatient Program & Developmental Psychiatry Program, Hospital de Clinica de Porto Alegre, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | | | - Luca Tessari
- Center for Innovation in Mental Health, School of Psychology, Faculty of Environmental and Life Sciences, Clinical and Experimental Sciences (CNS and Psychiatry), Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, UK
| | | | - Samuele Cortese
- Center for Innovation in Mental Health, School of Psychology, Faculty of Environmental and Life Sciences, Clinical and Experimental Sciences (CNS and Psychiatry), Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, UK; Solent NHS Trust, Southampton, UK; Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Hassenfeld Children's Hospital at NYU Langone, New York, NY, USA; Division of Psychiatry and Applied Psychology, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Luis Augusto Rohde
- ADHD Outpatient Program & Developmental Psychiatry Program, Hospital de Clinica de Porto Alegre, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; National Institute of Developmental Psychiatry, Brazil.
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Erasmus N, Kotzé C. Medical Students' Attitudes Towards Pharmacological Cognitive Enhancement With Methylphenidate. ACADEMIC PSYCHIATRY : THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF DIRECTORS OF PSYCHIATRIC RESIDENCY TRAINING AND THE ASSOCIATION FOR ACADEMIC PSYCHIATRY 2020; 44:721-726. [PMID: 32974792 DOI: 10.1007/s40596-020-01303-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to assess medical students' perception of pharmacological cognitive enhancement (PCE) with methylphenidate and to determine whether this perception differs between junior and senior medical students. METHODS The second and fifth year medical student groups of 2017 at a specific university completed self-administered questionnaires in order to investigate if there were a difference in their attitudes towards methylphenidate use for PCE. RESULTS A total of 353 students were included as follows: 135 second year and 218 fifth year students. Fifth year students were more aware of PCE with methylphenidate than second year students (94% versus 87%; p value = 0.02). Many students (second year = 86%; fifth year = 71%; p value = 0.2469) were of the opinion that methylphenidate could enhance academic performance. Sixty-six percent of all the students were concerned about the fairness of PCE; 93% were concerned about the harmfulness of methylphenidate. There were no statistical significant differences in the attitudes towards methylphenidate use for PCE between the two groups of junior and senior students. CONCLUSION In both groups, the majority of students were against the use of methylphenidate for PCE in students without attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder. Their attitudes regarding the use of methylphenidate for non-medical purposes did not differ significantly. Addressing the topic of PCE with medical students is essential, and the impact on their practice can be an important direction for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nelly Erasmus
- Weskoppies Psychiatric Hospital, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa
| | - Carla Kotzé
- Weskoppies Psychiatric Hospital, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa.
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Rubin-Kahana DS, Rubin-Kahana Z, Kuperberg M, Stryjer R, Yodashkin-Porat D. Cognitive enhancement drug use among resident physicians: Prevalence and motivations for use - results from a survey. J Addict Dis 2020; 38:250-256. [PMID: 32297564 DOI: 10.1080/10550887.2020.1747337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Background: Non-medical use of prescription drugs for the enhancement of cognitive functioning has gained popularity in recent years, especially among young educated adults. To our knowledge, no previous study investigated this phenomenon among resident physicians.Objective: To analyze cognitive enhancement drugs use motivations and patterns among resident physicians.Methods: A survey and statistical analysis regarding the use of drugs traditionally prescribed for the treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: stimulants, amphetamines and modafinil.Participants: 1,453 residents who took their written residency exam in the summer of 2017. The response rate was 32.3%.Results: 28.1% of responders reported past use, with 73.67% of them reporting use without a related medical diagnosis. Almost half of the users (47.1%) acquired the drug with a prescription, but without a diagnosis of a related medical disorder. The first use was predominantly during residency (54.3%), with 45% reporting it as related to the residency exam.Factors found to positively impact non-medical use include: declaring undiagnosed Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, fear of failing the exam, a belief that more than 30% of other examinees take cognitive enhancements drugs, and a learning disability diagnosis. Self-reports of being a competitive person and being a parent, were negatively correlated with non-medical use.Conclusions: The use of drugs that are taken traditionally for the treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is common among resident physicians, both with and without related medical indication. Interestingly, factors associated with the fear of being "left behind" increase non-medical use and not the desire to succeed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dafna Sara Rubin-Kahana
- Beer-Yaacov - Ness-Ziona Mental Health Center, Beer Yaakov, Israel.,Sackler Medical School of Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | | | - Maya Kuperberg
- Beer-Yaacov - Ness-Ziona Mental Health Center, Beer Yaakov, Israel.,Sackler Medical School of Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Rafael Stryjer
- Sackler Medical School of Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.,Abarbanel Mental Health Center, Bat Yam, Israel
| | - Dorit Yodashkin-Porat
- Sackler Medical School of Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.,Lev Hasharon Mental Health Center, Tzur Moshe, Israel
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Javed N, Ahmed F, Saeed S, Amir R, Khan H, Iqbal SP. Prevalence of Methylphenidate Misuse in Medical Colleges in Pakistan: A Cross-sectional Study. Cureus 2019; 11:e5879. [PMID: 31772849 PMCID: PMC6837268 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.5879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective To determine the prevalence of nontherapeutic use of methylphenidate as well as to ascertain any benefits, side effects, and other factors associated with this use. Materials and Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted in medical colleges in Pakistan using a self-constructed, validated questionnaire. The sample size was calculated using Open Source Statistics for Epidemiological Health software (OpenEpi web-based open-source program, MIT license), and it was determined to be 400. The type of sampling was cluster sampling. Cronbach's alpha was used to assess the internal consistency of the questionnaire, and it was found to be 0.80. Results Out of the 400 participants, 197 (49%) were male and 203 (51%) were female. The mean age of the participants was 21.02 (±1.54) years. Most of the participants (84%) reported they usually studied 1-3 hours a day, and 149 participants (37%) reported a score ranging from 70 to 80% in exams. Methylphenidate was admitted to be used by 37 participants. Out of these 37 participants, only 10 participants believed they had attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Participants revealed they used the drug to either cope with the anxiety related to their scores or merely as a personal, recreational choice. Methylphenidate was mostly acquired from peers (68%), and peer pressure was found to be a major factor in its misuse. Conclusions Most of the methylphenidate misuse is linked to student underperformance in examinations and an underlying dissatisfaction. The problem is more aggravated when the social influence exerted by other students is taken into account. The side effects of drug usage are found to outweigh the benefits that have been reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nismat Javed
- Internal Medicine, Shifa College of Medicine, Shifa Tameer-E-Millat University, Islamabad, PAK
| | - Fatimah Ahmed
- Internal Medicine, Shifa College of Medicine, Shifa Tameer-E-Millat University, Islamabad, PAK
| | - Sikandar Saeed
- Surgery, Shifa College of Medicine, Shifa Tameer-E-Millat University, Islamabad, PAK
| | - Raham Amir
- Internal Medicine, Shifa College of Medicine, Shifa Tameer-E-Millat University, Islamabad, PAK
| | - Hadia Khan
- Internal Medicine, Shifa College of Medicine, Shifa Tameer-E-Millat University, Islamabad, PAK
| | - Saima P Iqbal
- Family Medicine, Shifa International Hospitals, Islamabad, PAK
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Jain R, Chang CC, Koto M, Geldenhuys A, Nichol R, Joubert G. Non-medical use of methylphenidate among medical students of the University of the Free State. S Afr J Psychiatr 2017; 23:1006. [PMID: 30263181 PMCID: PMC6138185 DOI: 10.4102/sajpsychiatry.v23.1006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2016] [Accepted: 08/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Faced with demanding training programmes, medical students may be more prone to use methylphenidate for non-medical purposes in order to improve concentration, alertness and academic performance. AIM The study aimed to investigate the prevalence of the non-medical use of methylphenidate and knowledge of this drug among undergraduate medical students of the University of the Free State. METHODS This was a cross-sectional study. A self-administered, anonymous questionnaire was distributed during lectures to all students in the five year groups of the undergraduate medical programme. RESULTS Of the 643 undergraduate medical students, 541 completed the questionnaire (response rate: 84.1%). Approximately 11.0% of surveyed students were using methylphenidate at the time of the study, of which the majority (67.9%) used it for academic purposes and 70.6% received it from a medical health professional. Less than a third of users had been diagnosed with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Methylphenidate users' median knowledge was greater than non-users, and methylphenidate knowledge increased from first-year and second-year students to third-year to fifth-year students. Median knowledge scores per year group ranged from 52.0% to 60.0%. CONCLUSION Methylphenidate is mainly used for non-medical purposes by medical students. Students generally have a low level of knowledge on methylphenidate. Specific information on methylphenidate should be included in lectures on stress management and study methods during the course of the medical curriculum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roshini Jain
- School of Medicine, University of the Free State, South Africa
| | - Ch Chiech Chang
- School of Medicine, University of the Free State, South Africa
| | - Mpho Koto
- School of Medicine, University of the Free State, South Africa
| | | | - Richard Nichol
- Department of Psychiatry (G66), University of the Free State, South Africa
| | - Gina Joubert
- Department of Biostatistics (G31), University of the Free State, South Africa
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