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Yan J, Li T, Ji K, Zhou X, Yao W, Zhou L, Huang P, Zhong K. Safranal alleviates pentetrazole-induced epileptic seizures in mice by inhibiting the NF-κB signaling pathway and mitochondrial-dependent apoptosis through GSK-3β inactivation. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2024; 333:118408. [PMID: 38823659 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2024.118408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2024] [Revised: 05/27/2024] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/03/2024]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Saffron, a traditional Chinese medicine, is derived from Crocus sativus L. stigmas and has been reported to possess neuroprotective properties and potentially contribute to the inhibition of apoptosis and inflammation. Safranal, a potent monothyral aldehyde, is a main component of saffron that has been reported to have antiepileptic activity. However, the specific mechanism by which safranal suppresses epileptic seizures via its antiapoptotic and anti-inflammatory properties is unclear. AIM To evaluate the effect of safranal on seizure severity, inflammation, and postictal neuronal apoptosis in a mouse model of pentetrazole (PTZ)-induced seizures and explore the underlying mechanism involved. MATERIALS AND METHODS The seizure stage and latency of stage 2 and 4 were quantified to assess the efficacy of safranal in mitigating PTZ-induced epileptic seizures in mice. Electroencephalography (EEG) was employed to monitor epileptiform afterdischarges in each experimental group. The cognitive abilities and motor functions of the mice were evaluated using the novel object recognition test and the open field test, respectively. Neurons were quantified using hematoxylin and eosin staining. Additionally, bioinformatics tools were utilized to predict the interactions between safranal and specific target proteins. Glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β), mitochondrial apoptosis-related proteins, and inflammatory factor levels were analyzed through western blotting. Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) concentrations in brain tissue were assessed by ELISA. RESULTS Safranal decreased the average seizure stage and increased the lantency of stage 2 and 4 seizures in PTZ-induced epileptic mice. Additionally, safranal exhibited neuroprotective effects on hippocampal CA1 and CA3 neurons and reduced hyperactivity caused by postictal hyperexcitability. Bioinformatics analysis revealed that safranal can bind to five specific proteins, including GSK-3β. By promoting Ser9 phosphorylation and inhibiting GSK-3β activity, safranal effectively suppressed the NF-κB signaling pathway. Moreover, the findings indicate that safranal treatment can decrease TNF-α and IL-1β levels in the cerebral tissues of epileptic mice and downregulate mitochondrial apoptosis-related proteins, including Bcl-2, Bax, Bak, Caspase 9, and Caspase 3. CONCLUSION Safranal can suppress the NF-κB signaling pathway and mitochondrial-dependent apoptosis through GSK-3β inactivation, suggesting that it is a promising therapeutic agent for epilepsy treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jieping Yan
- Center for Clinical Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacy, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital, Affiliated People's Hospital, Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, 310014, China; Key Laboratory of Endocrine Gland Diseases of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, 310014, China
| | - Tingting Li
- Center for Clinical Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacy, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital, Affiliated People's Hospital, Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, 310014, China
| | - Kaiyue Ji
- Center for Clinical Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacy, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital, Affiliated People's Hospital, Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, 310014, China
| | - Xinyue Zhou
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences and Forensic Medicine, Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, 310014, China
| | - Weiyi Yao
- Center for Clinical Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacy, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital, Affiliated People's Hospital, Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, 310014, China; Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, 311121, China
| | - Liujing Zhou
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences and Forensic Medicine, Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, 310014, China
| | - Ping Huang
- Center for Clinical Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacy, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital, Affiliated People's Hospital, Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, 310014, China; Key Laboratory of Endocrine Gland Diseases of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, 310014, China.
| | - Kai Zhong
- Center for Clinical Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacy, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital, Affiliated People's Hospital, Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, 310014, China; Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences and Forensic Medicine, Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, 310014, China.
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Zhang X, Zhao T, Su S, Li L, Zhang Y, Yan J, Cui X, Sun Y, Zhao J, Han X, Cao J. An explanation of the role of pyroptosis playing in epilepsy. Int Immunopharmacol 2024; 136:112386. [PMID: 38850794 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2024.112386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2024] [Revised: 05/29/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/10/2024]
Abstract
Epilepsy is a severe central nervous system disorder characterized by an imbalance between neuronal excitation and inhibition, resulting in heightened neuronal excitability, particularly within the hippocampus. About one-third of individuals with epilepsy experience difficult-to-manage seizures, known as refractory epilepsy. Epilepsy is closely linked to inflammatory immune response, with elevated levels of inflammatory mediators observed in individuals with this condition. This inflammation of the brain can lead to seizures of various types and is further exacerbated by the release of inflammatory factors, which heighten the excitability of peripheral neurons and worsen the progression of epilepsy. Pyroptosis is an inflammatory programmed cell death which has been shown to be involved in the pathological process of epilepsy. Inflammatory factors released during pyroptosis increase neuronal excitability and promote abnormal discharge in epilepsy, increasing susceptibility to epilepsy. This article provides an overview of the current knowledge on cell pyroptosis and its potential mechanisms, including both canonical and noncanonical pathways. Additionally, we discuss the potential mechanisms of pyroptosis occurrence in epilepsy and the potential therapeutic drugs targeting pyroptosis as a treatment strategy. In summary, this review highlights the promising potential of pyroptosis as a target for developing innovative therapies for epilepsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuefei Zhang
- Department of Human Anatomy, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, Henan, China.
| | - Ting Zhao
- Department of Neurology and Basic Medicine, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450000, China.
| | - Songxue Su
- Department of Human Anatomy, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, Henan, China
| | - Lei Li
- Department of Human Anatomy, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, Henan, China
| | - Yubing Zhang
- Department of Human Anatomy, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, Henan, China
| | - Jiangyu Yan
- Department of Human Anatomy, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, Henan, China
| | - Xiaoxiao Cui
- Department of Neurology and Basic Medicine, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450000, China
| | - Yanyan Sun
- Department of Human Anatomy, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, Henan, China.
| | - Jianyuan Zhao
- Institute for Developmental and Regenerative Cardiovascular Medicine, MOE-Shanghai Key Laboratory of Children's Environmental Health, Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200092, China.
| | - Xiong Han
- Department of Neurology and Basic Medicine, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450000, China.
| | - Jing Cao
- Department of Human Anatomy, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, Henan, China.
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Xu Y, Li Y, Richard SA, Sun Y, Zhu C. Genetic pathways in cerebral palsy: a review of the implications for precision diagnosis and understanding disease mechanisms. Neural Regen Res 2024; 19:1499-1508. [PMID: 38051892 PMCID: PMC10883492 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.385855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2023] [Accepted: 09/02/2023] [Indexed: 12/07/2023] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT Cerebral palsy is a diagnostic term utilized to describe a group of permanent disorders affecting movement and posture. Patients with cerebral palsy are often only capable of limited activity, resulting from non-progressive disturbances in the fetal or neonatal brain. These disturbances severely impact the child's daily life and impose a substantial economic burden on the family. Although cerebral palsy encompasses various brain injuries leading to similar clinical outcomes, the understanding of its etiological pathways remains incomplete owing to its complexity and heterogeneity. This review aims to summarize the current knowledge on the genetic factors influencing cerebral palsy development. It is now widely acknowledged that genetic mutations and alterations play a pivotal role in cerebral palsy development, which can be further influenced by environmental factors. Despite continuous research endeavors, the underlying factors contributing to cerebral palsy remain are still elusive. However, significant progress has been made in genetic research that has markedly enhanced our comprehension of the genetic factors underlying cerebral palsy development. Moreover, these genetic factors have been categorized based on the identified gene mutations in patients through clinical genotyping, including thrombosis, angiogenesis, mitochondrial and oxidative phosphorylation function, neuronal migration, and cellular autophagy. Furthermore, exploring targeted genotypes holds potential for precision treatment. In conclusion, advancements in genetic research have substantially improved our understanding of the genetic causes underlying cerebral palsy. These breakthroughs have the potential to pave the way for new treatments and therapies, consequently shaping the future of cerebral palsy research and its clinical management. The investigation of cerebral palsy genetics holds the potential to significantly advance treatments and management strategies. By elucidating the underlying cellular mechanisms, we can develop targeted interventions to optimize outcomes. A continued collaboration between researchers and clinicians is imperative to comprehensively unravel the intricate genetic etiology of cerebral palsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiran Xu
- Henan Key Laboratory of Child Brain Injury and Henan Pediatric Clinical Research Center, Institute of Neuroscience and The Third Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan Province, China
- National Health Council (NHC) Key Laboratory of Birth Defects Prevention, Henan Key Laboratory of Population Defects Prevention, Zhengzhou, Henan Province, China
| | - Yifei Li
- Department of Human Anatomy, School of Basic Medicine and Institute of Neuroscience, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan Province, China
| | - Seidu A Richard
- Henan Key Laboratory of Child Brain Injury and Henan Pediatric Clinical Research Center, Institute of Neuroscience and The Third Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan Province, China
| | - Yanyan Sun
- Department of Human Anatomy, School of Basic Medicine and Institute of Neuroscience, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan Province, China
| | - Changlian Zhu
- Henan Key Laboratory of Child Brain Injury and Henan Pediatric Clinical Research Center, Institute of Neuroscience and The Third Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan Province, China
- Center for Brain Repair and Rehabilitation, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
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Chen J, Gao Y, Liu N, Hai D, Wei W, Liu Y, Lan X, Jin X, Yu J, Ma L. Mechanism of NLRP3 Inflammasome in Epilepsy and Related Therapeutic Agents. Neuroscience 2024; 546:157-177. [PMID: 38574797 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2024.03.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2023] [Revised: 03/05/2024] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/06/2024]
Abstract
Epilepsy is one of the most widespread and complex diseases in the central nervous system (CNS), affecting approximately 65 million people globally, an important factor resulting in neurological disability-adjusted life year (DALY) and progressive cognitive dysfunction. Medication is the most essential treatment. The currently used drugs have shown drug resistance in some patients and only control symptoms; the development of novel and more efficacious pharmacotherapy is imminent. Increasing evidence suggests neuroinflammation is involved in the occurrence and development of epilepsy, and high expression of NLRP3 inflammasome has been observed in the temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) brain tissue of patients and animal models. The inflammasome is a crucial cause of neuroinflammation by activating IL-1β and IL-18. Many preclinical studies have confirmed that regulating NLRP3 inflammasome pathway can prevent the development of epilepsy, reduce the severity of epilepsy, and play a neuroprotective role. Therefore, regulating NLRP3 inflammasome could be a potential target for epilepsy treatment. In summary, this review describes the priming and activation of inflammasome and its biological function in the progression of epilepsy. In addition, we reviewes the current pharmacological researches for epilepsy based on the regulation of NLRP3 inflammasome, aiming to provide a basis and reference for developing novel antiepileptic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China
| | - Yuan Gao
- Department of Pharmacology, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China
| | - Ning Liu
- Department of Pharmacology, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China
| | - Dongmei Hai
- Department of Pharmacology, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China
| | - Wei Wei
- Department of Pharmacology, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China
| | - Yue Liu
- Department of Pharmacology, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China
| | - Xiaobing Lan
- Department of Pharmacology, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China
| | - Xueqin Jin
- Department of Pharmacology, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China.
| | - Jianqiang Yu
- Department of Pharmacology, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China.
| | - Lin Ma
- Department of Pharmacology, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China.
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You W, Li Y, Liu K, Mi X, Li Y, Guo X, Li Z. Latest assessment methods for mitochondrial homeostasis in cognitive diseases. Neural Regen Res 2024; 19:754-768. [PMID: 37843209 PMCID: PMC10664105 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.382222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Revised: 06/03/2023] [Accepted: 07/06/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria play an essential role in neural function, such as supporting normal energy metabolism, regulating reactive oxygen species, buffering physiological calcium loads, and maintaining the balance of morphology, subcellular distribution, and overall health through mitochondrial dynamics. Given the recent technological advances in the assessment of mitochondrial structure and functions, mitochondrial dysfunction has been regarded as the early and key pathophysiological mechanism of cognitive disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, mild cognitive impairment, and postoperative cognitive dysfunction. This review will focus on the recent advances in mitochondrial medicine and research methodology in the field of cognitive sciences, from the perspectives of energy metabolism, oxidative stress, calcium homeostasis, and mitochondrial dynamics (including fission-fusion, transport, and mitophagy).
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei You
- Department of Anesthesiology, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, China
- Peking University Third Clinical Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Yue Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Kaixi Liu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Xinning Mi
- Department of Anesthesiology, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Yitong Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Xiangyang Guo
- Department of Anesthesiology, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, China
- Beijing Center of Quality Control and Improvement on Clinical Anesthesia, Beijing, China
- Anesthesia and Perioperative Medicine Branch of China International Exchange and Promotive Association for Medical and Health Care (CPAM), Beijing, China
| | - Zhengqian Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, China
- Beijing Center of Quality Control and Improvement on Clinical Anesthesia, Beijing, China
- Anesthesia and Perioperative Medicine Branch of China International Exchange and Promotive Association for Medical and Health Care (CPAM), Beijing, China
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Li Y, Li YJ, Zhu ZQ. To re-examine the intersection of microglial activation and neuroinflammation in neurodegenerative diseases from the perspective of pyroptosis. Front Aging Neurosci 2023; 15:1284214. [PMID: 38020781 PMCID: PMC10665880 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2023.1284214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs), such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and motor neuron disease, are diseases characterized by neuronal damage and dysfunction. NDs are considered to be a multifactorial disease with diverse etiologies (immune, inflammatory, aging, genetic, etc.) and complex pathophysiological processes. Previous studies have found that neuroinflammation and typical microglial activation are important mechanisms of NDs, leading to neurological dysfunction and disease progression. Pyroptosis is a new mode involved in this process. As a form of programmed cell death, pyroptosis is characterized by the expansion of cells until the cell membrane bursts, resulting in the release of cell contents that activates a strong inflammatory response that promotes NDs by accelerating neuronal dysfunction and abnormal microglial activation. In this case, abnormally activated microglia release various pro-inflammatory factors, leading to the occurrence of neuroinflammation and exacerbating both microglial and neuronal pyroptosis, thus forming a vicious cycle. The recognition of the association between pyroptosis and microglia activation, as well as neuroinflammation, is of significant importance in understanding the pathogenesis of NDs and providing new targets and strategies for their prevention and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
- College of Anesthesiology, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Ying-Jie Li
- Department of General Surgery, Mianyang Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Mianyang, China
| | - Zhao-Qiong Zhu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
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Jo D, Arjunan A, Choi S, Jung YS, Park J, Jo J, Kim OY, Song J. Oligonol ameliorates liver function and brain function in the 5 × FAD mouse model: transcriptional and cellular analysis. Food Funct 2023; 14:9650-9670. [PMID: 37843873 DOI: 10.1039/d3fo03451h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a common neurodegenerative disease worldwide and is accompanied by memory deficits, personality changes, anxiety, depression, and social difficulties. For treatment of AD, many researchers have attempted to find medicinal resources with high effectiveness and without side effects. Oligonol is a low molecular weight polypeptide derived from lychee fruit extract. We investigated the effects of oligonol in 5 × FAD transgenic AD mice, which developed severe amyloid pathology, through behavioral tests (Barnes maze, marble burying, and nestle shredding) and molecular experiments. Oligonol treatment attenuated blood glucose levels and increased the antioxidant response in the livers of 5 × FAD mice. Moreover, the behavioral score data showed improvements in anxiety, depressive behavior, and cognitive impairment following a 2-month course of orally administered oligonol. Oligonol treatment not only altered the circulating levels of cytokines and adipokines in 5 × FAD mice, but also significantly enhanced the mRNA and protein levels of antioxidant enzymes and synaptic plasticity in the brain cortex and hippocampus. Therefore, we highlight the therapeutic potential of oligonol to attenuate neuropsychiatric problems and improve memory deficits in the early stage of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danbi Jo
- Department of Anatomy, Chonnam National University Medical School, Seoyangro 264, Hwasun 58128, Republic of Korea.
- Biomedical Science Graduate Program (BMSGP), Chonnam National University, Seoyangro 264, Hwasun 58128, Republic of Korea
| | - Archana Arjunan
- Department of Anatomy, Chonnam National University Medical School, Seoyangro 264, Hwasun 58128, Republic of Korea.
| | - Seoyoon Choi
- Department of Anatomy, Chonnam National University Medical School, Seoyangro 264, Hwasun 58128, Republic of Korea.
- Biomedical Science Graduate Program (BMSGP), Chonnam National University, Seoyangro 264, Hwasun 58128, Republic of Korea
| | - Yoon Seok Jung
- Department of Anatomy, Chonnam National University Medical School, Seoyangro 264, Hwasun 58128, Republic of Korea.
| | - Jihyun Park
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Dong-A University, Nakdong-daero 550 beon-gil, Saha-gu, Busan, 49315, Republic of Korea.
- Department of Health Sciences, Graduate School of Dong-A University, Nakdong-daero 550 beon-gil, Saha-gu, Busan, 49315, Republic of Korea
| | - Jihoon Jo
- Department of Biomedical Science, Chonnam National University Medical School, Seoyangro 264, Hwasun 58128, Republic of Korea.
| | - Oh Yoen Kim
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Dong-A University, Nakdong-daero 550 beon-gil, Saha-gu, Busan, 49315, Republic of Korea.
- Department of Health Sciences, Graduate School of Dong-A University, Nakdong-daero 550 beon-gil, Saha-gu, Busan, 49315, Republic of Korea
| | - Juhyun Song
- Department of Anatomy, Chonnam National University Medical School, Seoyangro 264, Hwasun 58128, Republic of Korea.
- Biomedical Science Graduate Program (BMSGP), Chonnam National University, Seoyangro 264, Hwasun 58128, Republic of Korea
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Marunaka Y. Molecular Mechanisms of Obesity-Induced Development of Insulin Resistance and Promotion of Amyloid-β Accumulation: Dietary Therapy Using Weak Organic Acids via Improvement of Lowered Interstitial Fluid pH. Biomolecules 2023; 13:biom13050779. [PMID: 37238649 DOI: 10.3390/biom13050779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2023] [Revised: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 04/28/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Insulin resistance is one of the etiologies of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and has been suggested to contribute to the development of Alzheimer's disease by promoting amyloid-β accumulation. Various causes of insulin resistance have been suggested; however, mechanisms of insulin resistance development remain to be elucidated in many respects. Elucidating the mechanisms underlying the development of insulin resistance is one of the key factors in developing methods to prevent the onset of T2DM and Alzheimer's disease. It has been suggested that the body pH environment plays an important role in the control of cellular functions by regulating the action of hormones including insulin and the activity of enzymes and neurons, thereby maintaining homeostatic conditions of the body. This review introduces: (1) Mitochondrial dysfunction through oxidative stress caused by obesity-induced inflammation. (2) Decreased pH of interstitial fluid due to mitochondrial dysfunction. (3) Development of insulin resistance due to diminution of insulin affinity to its receptor caused by the lowered interstitial fluid pH. (4) Accelerated accumulation of amyloid-β due to elevated activities of β- and γ-secretases caused by the lowered interstitial fluid pH. (5) Diet therapies for improving insulin resistance with weak organic acids that act as bases in the body to raise the pH of lowered interstitial fluid and food factors that promote absorption of weak organic acids in the gut.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshinori Marunaka
- Medical Research Institute, Kyoto Industrial Health Association, Kyoto 604-8472, Japan
- Research Organization of Science and Technology, Ritsumeikan University, Kusatsu 525-8577, Japan
- Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan
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