1
|
Tan Z, Deng Y, Cai Z, He H, Tang Z, Feng Y, Ye J, Liu R, Cai S, Huang H, Han Z, Zhong W, Guo K. ACOX2 Serves as a Favorable Indicator Related to Lipid Metabolism and Oxidative Stress for Biochemical Recurrence in Prostate Cancer. J Cancer 2024; 15:3010-3023. [PMID: 38706909 PMCID: PMC11064250 DOI: 10.7150/jca.93832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2024] [Accepted: 03/17/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Given the heterogeneity of tumors, there is an urgent need for accurate prognostic parameters in prostate cancer (PCa) patients. Lipid metabolism (LM) reprogramming and oxidative stress (OS) play a vital role in the progression of PCa. In this work, we identified five LM-OS-related genes (including ACOX2, PPRAGC1A, PTGS1, PTGS2, and HAO1) associated with the biochemical recurrence (BCR) of PCa. Subsequently, a prognostic signature was established based on these five genes. Kaplan-Meier survival estimates, receiver operating characteristic curves, and relationship analysis between risk score and clinical characters were applied to measure the robustness of the signature in an external cohort. A nomogram of risk score combined with clinical characteristics was constructed for clinical application. Functional enrichment analysis suggested that the underlying mechanism related to the signature included the calcium signaling, lipid transport, and cell cycle signaling pathways. Furthermore, WEE1 inhibitor was identified as a potential agent related to the cell cycle for high-risk patients. The mRNA expression and the prognostic value of the five genes were determined, and ACOX2 was identified as the key gene related to the prognostic signature. The protein expression of ACOX2 was measured in a prostate tissue microarray through an immunohistochemistry assay, confirming the bioinformatics results. By constructing the ACOX2-overexpressing PCa cell lines PC-3 and 22Rv1, the biological function of PCa cells was investigated. The cell viability, colony formation, migration, and invasion ability of PCa cell lines overexpressing ACOX2 were hindered. Decreased cellular lipid content and elevated cellular ROS content were observed in ACOX2-overexpressing PCa cell lines with reduced G2/M phases. In conclusion, this work presents the first prognostic signature specifically focused on LM-OS for PCa. ACOX2 could serve as a favorable indicator for the BCR in PCa. Further experiments are required to identify the potential underlying mechanism.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zeheng Tan
- Department of Urology, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510282, China
| | - Yulin Deng
- Department of Urology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Clinical Molecular Medicine and Diagnostics, Guangzhou First People's Hospital, School of Medicine, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510180, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Urology, Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510120, China
| | - Zhiduan Cai
- Department of Urology, Key Laboratory of Biological Targeting Diagnosis, Therapy and Rehabilitation of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510700, China
| | - Huichan He
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Urology, Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510120, China
| | - Zhenfeng Tang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Urology, Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510120, China
- Guangzhou National Laboratory, No. 9 XingDaoHuanBei Road, Guangzhou International Bio Island, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510005, China
| | - Yuanfa Feng
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Urology, Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510120, China
| | - Jianheng Ye
- Department of Urology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Clinical Molecular Medicine and Diagnostics, Guangzhou First People's Hospital, School of Medicine, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510180, China
| | - Ren Liu
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510062, China
| | - Shanghua Cai
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Urology, Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510120, China
- Guangzhou National Laboratory, No. 9 XingDaoHuanBei Road, Guangzhou International Bio Island, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510005, China
| | - Huiting Huang
- Department of Urology, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510282, China
| | - Zhaodong Han
- Department of Urology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Clinical Molecular Medicine and Diagnostics, Guangzhou First People's Hospital, School of Medicine, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510180, China
| | - Weide Zhong
- Department of Urology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Clinical Molecular Medicine and Diagnostics, Guangzhou First People's Hospital, School of Medicine, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510180, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Urology, Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510120, China
- Guangzhou National Laboratory, No. 9 XingDaoHuanBei Road, Guangzhou International Bio Island, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510005, China
| | - Kai Guo
- Department of Urology, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510282, China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Yang J, Xia T, Zhou S, Liu S, Pan T, Li Y, Luo Z. Anticancer Effect of Dihydroartemisinin via Dual Control of ROS-induced Apoptosis and Protective Autophagy in Prostate Cancer 22Rv1 Cells. Curr Pharm Biotechnol 2024; 25:1321-1332. [PMID: 37605406 DOI: 10.2174/1389201024666230821155243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Revised: 06/24/2023] [Accepted: 07/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/23/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Dihydroartemisinin (DHA), a natural agent, exhibits potent anticancer activity. However, its biological activity on prostate cancer (PCa) 22Rv1 cells has not been previously investigated. OBJECTIVES In this study, we demonstrate that DHA induces anticancer effects through the induction of apoptosis and autophagy. METHODS Cell viability and proliferation rate were assessed using the CCK-8 assay and cell clone formation assay. The generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) was detected by flow cytometry. The molecular mechanism of DHA-induced apoptosis and autophagy was examined using Western blot and RT-qPCR. The formation of autophagosomes and the changes in autophagy flux were observed using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and confocal microscopy. The effect of DHA combined with Chloroquine (CQ) was assessed using the EdU assay and flow cytometry. The expressions of ROS/AMPK/mTOR-related proteins were detected using Western blot. The interaction between Beclin-1 and Bcl-2 was examined using Co-IP. RESULTS DHA inhibited 22Rv1 cell proliferation and induced apoptosis. DHA exerted its antiprostate cancer effects by increasing ROS levels. DHA promoted autophagy progression in 22Rv1 cells. Inhibition of autophagy enhanced the pro-apoptotic effect of DHA. DHA-induced autophagy initiation depended on the ROS/AMPK/mTOR pathway. After DHA treatment, the impact of Beclin- 1 on Bcl-2 was weakened, and its binding with Vps34 was enhanced. CONCLUSION DHA induces apoptosis and autophagy in 22Rv1 cells. The underlying mechanism may involve the regulation of ROS/AMPK/mTOR signaling pathways and the interaction between Beclin-1 and Bcl-2 proteins. Additionally, the combination of DHA and CQ may enhance the efficacy of DHA in inhibiting tumor cell activity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jiaxin Yang
- Laboratory of Medical Experiment Technology, Institute of Life Science, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Tong Xia
- Laboratory of Medical Experiment Technology, Institute of Life Science, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Sijie Zhou
- Laboratory of Medical Experiment Technology, Institute of Life Science, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Sihao Liu
- Laboratory of Medical Experiment Technology, Institute of Life Science, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Tingyu Pan
- Laboratory of Medical Experiment Technology, Institute of Life Science, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Ying Li
- Laboratory of Medical Experiment Technology, Institute of Life Science, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Ziguo Luo
- Laboratory of Medical Experiment Technology, Institute of Life Science, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Liu Z, Kuang S, Chen Q. A review focusing on the role of pyroptosis in prostate cancer. Medicine (Baltimore) 2023; 102:e36605. [PMID: 38115248 PMCID: PMC10727670 DOI: 10.1097/md.0000000000036605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2023] [Revised: 11/10/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023] Open
Abstract
As one of the types of programmed cell death, pyroptosis has become a focus of research in recent years. Numerous studies have shown that pyroptosis plays a regulatory role in tumor cell invasiveness, differentiation, proliferation, and metastasis. It has been demonstrated that pyroptosis is involved in the regulation of signaling pathways implicated in the pathogenesis of prostate cancer (PCa). Furthermore, the loss of expression of pyroptosis-related genes in PCa has been reported, and pyroptosis-related genes have demonstrated a considerable ability in predicting the prognosis of PCa. Therefore, the potential role of pyroptosis in regulating the development of PCa warrants further investigation and attention. In this review, we summarize the basics of the role of pyroptosis and also discuss research into the mechanisms of action associated with pyroptosis in PCa. It is hoped that by exploring the potential of the pyroptosis pathway in intervening in PCa, it will provide a viable direction for the diversification of PCa treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhewen Liu
- Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, People’s Republic of China
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, People’s Republic of China
| | - Shida Kuang
- Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, People’s Republic of China
| | - Qihua Chen
- Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, People’s Republic of China
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, People’s Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
He C, Liu W, Sun J, Zhang D, Li B. Jumonji domain-containing protein RIOX2 is overexpressed and associated with worse survival outcomes in prostate cancers. Front Oncol 2023; 13:1087082. [PMID: 36776320 PMCID: PMC9911806 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2023.1087082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Accepted: 01/09/2023] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Histone demethylase RIOX2 was cloned as a c-Myc downstream gene involved in cell proliferation and has been implicated as an oncogenic factor in multiple tumor types. Its expression profiles and correlation with disease progression in prostate cancers are unknown. Methods Transcriptomic profiles of Jumanji domain-containing protein genes were assessed using multiple public expression datasets generated from RNA-seq and cDNA microarray assays. RIOX2 protein expression was assessed using an immunohistochemistry approach on a tissue section array from benign and malignant prostate tissues. Gene expression profiles were analyzed using the bioinformatics software R package. Western blot assay examined androgen stimulation on RIOX2 protein expression in LNCaP cells. Results Among 35 Jumanji domain-containing protein genes, 12 genes were significantly upregulated in prostate cancers compared to benign compartments. COX regression analysis identified that the ribosomal oxygenase 2 (RIOX2) gene was the only one significantly associated with disease-specific survival outcomes in prostate cancer patients. RIOX2 upregulation was confirmed at the protein levels using immunohistochemical assays on prostate cancer tissue sections. Meanwhile, RIOX2 upregulation was associated with clinicopathological features, including late-stage diseases, adverse Gleason scores, TP53 gene mutation, and disease-free status. In castration-resistant prostate cancers (CRPC), RIOX2 expression was positively correlated with AR signaling index but negatively correlated with the neuroendocrinal progression index. However, androgen treatment had no significant stimulatory effect on RIOX2 expression, indicating a parallel but not a causative effect of androgen signaling on RIOX2 gene expression. Further analysis discovered that RIOX2 expression was tightly correlated with its promoter hypomethylation and MYC gene expression, consistent with the notion that RIOX2 was a c-Myc target gene. Conclusion The Jumanji domain-containing protein RIOX2 was significantly overexpressed in prostate cancer, possibly due to c-Myc upregulation. RIOX2 upregulation was identified as an independent prognostic factor for disease-specific survival.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chenchen He
- Department of Radiation Oncology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
| | - Wang Liu
- Department of Urology, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, United States
| | - Jiahao Sun
- Department of Radiation Oncology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
| | - Da Zhang
- Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, United States
| | - Benyi Li
- Department of Urology, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, United States,Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, United States,*Correspondence: Benyi Li,
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Li S, Gao X. A combinational chemo-immune therapy using outer membrane vesicles for enhanced cancer therapy by RGD targeting. NANOMEDICINE : NANOTECHNOLOGY, BIOLOGY, AND MEDICINE 2022:102610. [PMID: 36257504 DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2022.102610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2022] [Revised: 09/12/2022] [Accepted: 09/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Cancer therapies are limited by poor drug penetration that impedes effective tumor treatment. This was overcome in the present study by loading the immune reaction inducing nanocarriers of the bacterial outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) and doxorubicin (DOX) into the natural immunity platform OMV via incubation. Drug accumulation at the tumor site was improved by using the targeting peptide 6-Mal- Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) on the surface of OMVs to increase internalization via binding to cell surface integrin αvβ3. OMVs stimulate immune responses by reversing the immune-suppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) via decreasing TAM and Treg, increasing CD8+ T and M1, and promoting DC maturation. The combination of DOX and OMVs compensates for the shortcomings of monotherapy (e.g., chemotherapy and immunotherapy) and amplifies the therapeutic efficacy of cancer treatment, while aiding selection of novel nanocarriers and development of effective therapeutic regimens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shuping Li
- Key Laboratory of Carbnhydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology Ministry of Educcation, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangshu 214122.PR China
| | - Xiaodong Gao
- Key Laboratory of Carbnhydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology Ministry of Educcation, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangshu 214122.PR China.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Preto AJ, Matos-Filipe P, Mourão J, Moreira IS. SYNPRED: prediction of drug combination effects in cancer using different synergy metrics and ensemble learning. Gigascience 2022; 11:giac087. [PMID: 36155782 PMCID: PMC9511701 DOI: 10.1093/gigascience/giac087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2021] [Revised: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In cancer research, high-throughput screening technologies produce large amounts of multiomics data from different populations and cell types. However, analysis of such data encounters difficulties due to disease heterogeneity, further exacerbated by human biological complexity and genomic variability. The specific profile of cancer as a disease (or, more realistically, a set of diseases) urges the development of approaches that maximize the effect while minimizing the dosage of drugs. Now is the time to redefine the approach to drug discovery, bringing an artificial intelligence (AI)-powered informational view that integrates the relevant scientific fields and explores new territories. RESULTS Here, we show SYNPRED, an interdisciplinary approach that leverages specifically designed ensembles of AI algorithms, as well as links omics and biophysical traits to predict anticancer drug synergy. It uses 5 reference models (Bliss, Highest Single Agent, Loewe, Zero Interaction Potency, and Combination Sensitivity Score), which, coupled with AI algorithms, allowed us to attain the ones with the best predictive performance and pinpoint the most appropriate reference model for synergy prediction, often overlooked in similar studies. By using an independent test set, SYNPRED exhibits state-of-the-art performance metrics either in the classification (accuracy, 0.85; precision, 0.91; recall, 0.90; area under the receiver operating characteristic, 0.80; and F1-score, 0.91) or in the regression models, mainly when using the Combination Sensitivity Score synergy reference model (root mean square error, 11.07; mean squared error, 122.61; Pearson, 0.86; mean absolute error, 7.43; Spearman, 0.87). Moreover, data interpretability was achieved by deploying the most current and robust feature importance approaches. A simple web-based application was constructed, allowing easy access by nonexpert researchers. CONCLUSIONS The performance of SYNPRED rivals that of the existing methods that tackle the same problem, yielding unbiased results trained with one of the most comprehensive datasets available (NCI ALMANAC). The leveraging of different reference models allowed deeper insights into which of them can be more appropriately used for synergy prediction. The Combination Sensitivity Score clearly stood out with improved performance among the full scope of surveyed approaches and synergy reference models. Furthermore, SYNPRED takes a particular focus on data interpretability, which has been in the spotlight lately when using the most advanced AI techniques.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- António J Preto
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- PhD Programme in Experimental Biology and Biomedicine, Institute for Interdisciplinary Research (IIIUC), University of Coimbra, Casa Costa Alemão, 3030-789 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Pedro Matos-Filipe
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Joana Mourão
- CNC—Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, CIBB—Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Irina S Moreira
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim de Freitas, 3000-456 Coimbra, Portugal
- CNC—Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, CIBB—Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Han Z, Mo R, Cai S, Feng Y, Tang Z, Ye J, Liu R, Cai Z, Zhu X, Deng Y, Zou Z, Wu Y, Cai Z, Liang Y, Zhong W. Differential Expression of E2F Transcription Factors and Their Functional and Prognostic Roles in Human Prostate Cancer. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:831329. [PMID: 35531101 PMCID: PMC9068940 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.831329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Given the tumor heterogeneity, most of the current prognostic indicators cannot accurately evaluate the prognosis of patients with prostate cancer, and thus, the best opportunity to intervene in the progression of this disease is missed. E2F transcription factors (E2Fs) have been reported to be involved in the growth of various cancers. Accumulating studies indicate that prostate cancer (PCa) carcinogenesis is attributed to aberrant E2F expression or E2F alteration. However, the expression patterns and prognostic value of the eight E2Fs in prostate cancer have yet to be explored. In this study, The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), Kaplan–Meier Plotter, Metascape, the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG), CIBERSORT, and cBioPortal and bioinformatic analysis were used to investigate E2Fs in patients with PCa. Our results showed that the expression of E2F1–3, E2F5, and E2F6 was higher in prostate cancer tissues than in benign tissues. Furthermore, elevated E2F1–3 and E2F5 expression levels were associated with a higher Gleason score (GS), advanced tumor stage, and metastasis. Survival analysis suggested that high transcription levels of E2F1–3, E2F5, E2F6, and E2F8 were associated with a higher risk of biochemical recurrence. In addition, we developed a prognostic model combining E2F1, E2F6, Gleason score, and the clinical stage that may accurately predict a biochemical recurrence-free survival. Functional enrichment analysis revealed that the E2F family members and their neighboring genes were mainly enriched in cell cycle-related pathways. Somatic mutations in different subgroups were also investigated, and immune components were predicted. Further experiments are warranted to clarify the biological associations between Pca-related E2F family genes, which may influence prognosis via the cell cycle pathway.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhaodong Han
- Department of Urology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Clinical Molecular Medicine and Diagnostics, Guangzhou First People’s Hospital, School of Medicine, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Rujun Mo
- Department of Urology, Affiliated Dongguan Hospital, Southern Medical University, Dongguan, China
| | - Shanghua Cai
- Department of Urology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yuanfa Feng
- Department of Urology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhenfeng Tang
- Department of Urology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jianheng Ye
- Department of Urology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Clinical Molecular Medicine and Diagnostics, Guangzhou First People’s Hospital, School of Medicine, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ren Liu
- Department of Urology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Clinical Molecular Medicine and Diagnostics, Guangzhou First People’s Hospital, School of Medicine, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhiduan Cai
- Department of Urology, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xuejin Zhu
- Department of Urology, Affiliated Cancer Hospital & Institute of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yulin Deng
- Department of Urology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Clinical Molecular Medicine and Diagnostics, Guangzhou First People’s Hospital, School of Medicine, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
- Department of Urology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhihao Zou
- Department of Urology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Clinical Molecular Medicine and Diagnostics, Guangzhou First People’s Hospital, School of Medicine, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yongding Wu
- Department of Urology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Clinical Molecular Medicine and Diagnostics, Guangzhou First People’s Hospital, School of Medicine, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhouda Cai
- Department of Andrology, Guangzhou First People’s Hospital, School of Medicine, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yuxiang Liang
- Department of Urology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Clinical Molecular Medicine and Diagnostics, Guangzhou First People’s Hospital, School of Medicine, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Yuxiang Liang, ; Weide Zhong,
| | - Weide Zhong
- Department of Urology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Clinical Molecular Medicine and Diagnostics, Guangzhou First People’s Hospital, School of Medicine, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
- Department of Urology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Yuxiang Liang, ; Weide Zhong,
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Huang J, Lin B, Li B. Anti-Androgen Receptor Therapies in Prostate Cancer: A Brief Update and Perspective. Front Oncol 2022; 12:865350. [PMID: 35372068 PMCID: PMC8965587 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.865350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2022] [Accepted: 02/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer is a major health issue in western countries and is the second leading cause of cancer death in American men. Prostate cancer depends on the androgen receptor (AR), a transcriptional factor critical for prostate cancer growth and progression. Castration by surgery or medical treatment reduces androgen levels, resulting in prostatic atrophy and prostate cancer regression. Thus, metastatic prostate cancers are initially managed with androgen deprivation therapy. Unfortunately, prostate cancers rapidly relapse after castration therapy and progress to a disease stage called castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Currently, clinical treatment for CRPCs is focused on suppressing AR activity with antagonists like Enzalutamide or by reducing androgen production with Abiraterone. In clinical practice, these treatments fail to yield a curative benefit in CRPC patients in part due to AR gene mutations or splicing variations, resulting in AR reactivation. It is conceivable that eliminating the AR protein in prostate cancer cells is a promising solution to provide a potential curative outcome. Multiple strategies have emerged, and several potent agents that reduce AR protein levels were reported to eliminate xenograft tumor growth in preclinical models via distinct mechanisms, including proteasome-mediated degradation, heat-shock protein inhibition, AR splicing suppression, blockage of AR nuclear localization, AR N-terminal suppression. A few small chemical compounds are undergoing clinical trials combined with existing AR antagonists. AR protein elimination by enhanced protein or mRNA degradation is a realistic solution for avoiding AR reactivation during androgen deprivation therapy in prostate cancers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jian Huang
- Pathological Diagnosis and Research Center, The Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Biyun Lin
- Pathological Diagnosis and Research Center, The Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Benyi Li
- Department of Urology, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, United States
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Mitra Ghosh T, Kansom T, Mazumder S, Davis J, Alnaim AS, Jasper SL, Zhang C, Bird A, Opanasopit P, Mitra AK, Arnold RD. The Andrographolide analogue 3A.1 synergizes with Taxane derivatives in aggressive metastatic prostate cancers by upregulation of Heat Shock proteins and downregulation of MAT2A-mediated cell migration and invasion. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2021; 380:180-201. [PMID: 34949650 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.121.000898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Conventional treatment with taxanes (docetaxel-DTX or cabazitaxel-CBZ) increases survival rates of aggressive metastatic castration resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC) to some extent since the majority of patients acquire resistance to taxanes. The andrographolide analogue, 19-tert-butyldiphenylsilyl-8,7-epoxy andrographolide (3A.1), has shown anticancer activity against various cancers. In this study, we investigated the effect of 3A.1 alone and in combination with DTX/CBZ against mCRPC and their mechanism of action. Exposure to 3A.1 alone exhibited a dose- and time-dependent antitumor activity in mCRPC. Chou-Talalay's combination index (CI) values of all 3A.1+ TX combinations were less than 0.5, indicating synergism. Co-treatment of 3A.1 with TX reduced the required dose of DTX and CBZ (p<0.05). Caspase assay (apoptosis) results concurred with in vitro cytotoxicity data. RNAseq followed by IPA analysis identified that upregulation of heat-shock proteins (Hsp70, Hsp40, Hsp27 and Hsp90) and downregulation of MAT2A as the key player for 3A.1 response. Further, the top treatment-induced DEGs belong to DNA damage, cell migration, hypoxia, autophagy (MMP1, MMP9, HIF-1α, Bag-3, H2AX, HMOX1, PSRC1) and cancer progression pathways. Most importantly, top downregulated DEG MAT2A has earlier been shown to be involved in cell migration and invasion. Further, using in silico analysis on the TCGA database, we found that MAT2A and highly co-expressed (r>0.7) genes, TRA2B and SF1, were associated with worse Gleason score and nodal metastasis status in prostate adenocarcinoma patients (PRAD-TCGA). Immunoblotting, COMET, and migration assays corroborated these findings. These results suggest that 3A.1 may be useful in increasing the anticancer efficacy of taxanes to treat aggressive PCa. Significance Statement The andrographolide analogue, 19-tert-butyldiphenylsilyl-8,7-epoxy andrographolide (3A.1) has shown anticancer activity against metastatic Castration resistance and neuroendocrine variant prostate cancers (mCRPC/NEPC). Additionally, 3A.1 exhibited synergistic anticancer effect in combination with standard therapy docetaxel and cabazitaxel in mCRPC/NEPC. Post-treatment gene expression studies revealed that heat-shock proteins (Hsp70, Hsp40, Hsp27, Hsp90) and MAT2A are major players in the mechanism of 3A.1 action and drug response. Further, DNA damage, cell migration, hypoxia, and autophagy were the crucial pathways for the anticancer activity of 3A.1.
Collapse
|
10
|
Effects of Psychological Intervention on Perioperative Quality of Life and Serum PSA and FPSA Levels of Patients with Prostate Cancer Treated with Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2021; 2021:9286905. [PMID: 34868335 PMCID: PMC8641984 DOI: 10.1155/2021/9286905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Objective To observe the effects of psychological intervention on the perioperative quality of life and serum prostate-specific antigen (PSA) and free PSA (FPSA) levels in patients with prostate cancer treated with integrated traditional Chinese and Western medicine. Method A total of 208 prostate cancer patients were selected and randomly divided into a study group with 104 cases and a control group with 104 cases. The control group received a plan of basic nursing combined with integrated traditional Chinese and Western medicine, and the study group received psychological intervention on the basis of the control group. Negative emotion, pain degree, quality of life, maximum urine flow rate, residual urine volume, International Prostate Symptom Score (IPSS), and incidence of adverse reactions were compared between the two groups before and after the treatment. The levels of PSA and FPSA and the long-term efficacy of the two groups of patients before and after treatment were compared. Results After nursing, Hamilton Anxiety Scale (HAMA) score, Hamilton Depression Scale (HAMD) score, pain degree, maximum urine flow rate, residual urine volume, IPSS score, emotional function, social function, role function, and physical function scores of patients in two groups were decreased, and the decrease was more significant in the study group. After treatment, serum PSA and FPSA levels in the study group were obviously lower than those in the control group. The two-year cumulative survival rate of the study group was higher than that of the control group. There was no significant difference in the cognitive function score and incidence of adverse reactions between the two groups. Conclusion Psychological intervention combined with traditional Chinese and Western medicine in the treatment of prostate cancer can effectively improve the patient's psychological state, reduce the degree of pain in patients, improve the therapeutic effect and the quality of life of patients, and significantly reduce serum PSA and FPSA levels, which could lead to a prolonged life.
Collapse
|
11
|
Docetaxel and prednisone with or without enzalutamide as first-line treatment in patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer: CHEIRON, a randomised phase II trial. Eur J Cancer 2021; 155:56-63. [PMID: 34358777 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejca.2021.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Revised: 05/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pre-clinical data suggest that docetaxel and enzalutamide interfere with androgen receptor translocation and signalling. The aim of this study is to assess the efficacy of their concurrent administration in the first-line treatment for metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC). METHODS In this open-label, randomised, phase II trial, previously untreated mCRPC patients were randomised 1:1 to receive eight 21-d courses of docetaxel 75 mg/m2, oral prednisone 5 mg twice daily and oral enzalutamide 160 mg/d (arm DE), or the same treatment without enzalutamide (arm D). The primary end-point was the percentage of patients without investigator-assessed disease progression 6 months after the first docetaxel administration. RESULTS The 246 eligible patients were randomly assigned to receive docetaxel, prednisone and enzalutamide (n = 120) or docetaxel and prednisone (n = 126). The 6-month progression rate was 12.5% (95% confidence interval [CI] 8.1-20.6) in arm DE and 27.8% (95% CI 22.8-39.4) in arm D (chi-squared test 10.01; P = 0.002). The most frequent grade III-IV adverse events were fatigue (12.5% in arm DE versus 5.6% in arm D), febrile neutropenia (9.3% versus 4.0%) and neutropenia (7.6% versus 5.6%). CONCLUSIONS The combination of enzalutamide and docetaxel appears to be more clinically beneficial than docetaxel alone in previously untreated mCRPC patients, although serious adverse events were more frequent. Our findings suggest that first-line treatment with this combination could lead to an additional clinical benefit when prompt and prolonged disease control is simultaneously required. Clearly, these results should be considered cautiously because of the study's phase II design and the absence of an overall survival benefit. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBERS EudraCT 2014-000175-43 - NCT02453009.
Collapse
|
12
|
Lin W, Li C, Xu N, Watanabe M, Xue R, Xu A, Araki M, Sun R, Liu C, Nasu Y, Huang P. Dual-Functional PLGA Nanoparticles Co-Loaded with Indocyanine Green and Resiquimod for Prostate Cancer Treatment. Int J Nanomedicine 2021; 16:2775-2787. [PMID: 33880023 PMCID: PMC8052122 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s301552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE With the advance of screening techniques, there is a growing number of low-risk or intermediate-risk prostate cancer (PCa) cases, remaining a serious threat to men's health. To obtain better efficacy, a growing interest has been attracted to develop such emerging treatments as immunotherapy and focal therapy. However, few studies offer guidance on whether and how to combine these modalities against PCa. This study was designed to develop dual-functional nanoparticles (NPs) which combined photothermal therapy (PTT) with immunotherapy and determine the anti-tumor efficacy for PCa treatment. METHODS By a double emulsion technique, the drug nanocarrier, poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) or PLGA, was applied for co-loading of a fluorescent dye, indocyanine green (ICG) and a toll-like receptor 7/8 (TLR7/8) agonist resiquimod (R848) to synthesize PLGA-ICG-R848 NPs. Next, we determined their characteristic features and evaluated whether they inhibited the cell viability in multiple PCa cell lines. After treatment with PLGA-ICG-R848, the maturation markers of bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs) were detected by flow cytometry. By establishing a subcutaneous xenograft model of mouse PCa, we explored both the anti-tumor effect and immune response following the NPs-based laser ablation. RESULTS With a mean diameter of 157.7 nm, PLGA-ICG-R848 exhibited no cytotoxic effect in PCa cells, but they significantly decreased RM9 cell viability to (3.9±1.0)% after laser irradiation. Moreover, PLGA-ICG-R848 promoted BMDCs maturation with the significantly elevated proportions of CD11c+CD86+ and CD11c+CD80+ cells. Following PLGA-ICG-R848-based laser ablation in vivo, the decreased bioluminescent signals indicated a significant inhibition of PCa growth, while the ratio of splenic natural killer (NK) cells in PLGA-ICG-R848 was (3.96±1.88)% compared with (0.99±0.10)% in PBS group, revealing the enhanced immune response against PCa. CONCLUSION The dual-functional PLGA-ICG-R848 NPs under laser irradiation exhibit the anti-tumor efficacy for PCa treatment by combining PTT with immunotherapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wenfeng Lin
- Department of Urology, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan
| | - Chaoming Li
- Department of Urology, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan
- Department of Urology, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Naijin Xu
- Department of Urology, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan
- Department of Urology, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Masami Watanabe
- Department of Urology, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan
- Center for Innovative Clinical Medicine, Okayama University Hospital, Okayama, Japan
| | - Ruizhi Xue
- Department of Urology, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan
| | - Abai Xu
- Department of Urology, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Motoo Araki
- Department of Urology, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan
| | - Ruifen Sun
- Center for Scientific Research, Yunnan University of Chinese Traditional Medicine, Kunming, People’s Republic of China
| | - Chunxiao Liu
- Department of Urology, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yasutomo Nasu
- Department of Urology, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan
| | - Peng Huang
- Department of Urology, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan
- Department of Urology, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, People’s Republic of China
- Okayama Medical Innovation Center, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Maloney SM, Hoover CA, Morejon-Lasso LV, Prosperi JR. Mechanisms of Taxane Resistance. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:E3323. [PMID: 33182737 PMCID: PMC7697134 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12113323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Revised: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 11/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The taxane family of chemotherapy drugs has been used to treat a variety of mostly epithelial-derived tumors and remain the first-line treatment for some cancers. Despite the improved survival time and reduction of tumor size observed in some patients, many have no response to the drugs or develop resistance over time. Taxane resistance is multi-faceted and involves multiple pathways in proliferation, apoptosis, metabolism, and the transport of foreign substances. In this review, we dive deeper into hypothesized resistance mechanisms from research during the last decade, with a focus on the cancer types that use taxanes as first-line treatment but frequently develop resistance to them. Furthermore, we will discuss current clinical inhibitors and those yet to be approved that target key pathways or proteins and aim to reverse resistance in combination with taxanes or individually. Lastly, we will highlight taxane response biomarkers, specific genes with monitored expression and correlated with response to taxanes, mentioning those currently being used and those that should be adopted. The future directions of taxanes involve more personalized approaches to treatment by tailoring drug-inhibitor combinations or alternatives depending on levels of resistance biomarkers. We hope that this review will identify gaps in knowledge surrounding taxane resistance that future research or clinical trials can overcome.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sara M. Maloney
- Harper Cancer Research Institute, South Bend, IN 46617, USA;
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Indiana University School of Medicine, South Bend, IN 46617, USA
| | - Camden A. Hoover
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA; (C.A.H.); (L.V.M.-L.)
| | - Lorena V. Morejon-Lasso
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA; (C.A.H.); (L.V.M.-L.)
| | - Jenifer R. Prosperi
- Harper Cancer Research Institute, South Bend, IN 46617, USA;
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Indiana University School of Medicine, South Bend, IN 46617, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA; (C.A.H.); (L.V.M.-L.)
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Feng N, Huang J. Prostate cancer: molecular and cellular mechanisms and their implications in therapy resistance and disease progression. Asian J Androl 2020; 21:213-214. [PMID: 30971530 PMCID: PMC6498730 DOI: 10.4103/aja.aja_31_19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer is among the most common malignancies in Western countries, and its incidence is rapidly rising in Asia where it was traditionally considered an uncommon tumor. Our understanding of the disease and management strategies continue to evolve. The first revolution of its treatment was in the 1940s when hormonal therapy was used to treat patients. The discovery of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) and the subsequent adoption of widespread PSA screening have made it possible to diagnose the disease early, but it was not until recently that the field realized that we had been overdiagnosing and overtreating a large number of men with indolent diseases that will not impact their quality of life or life expectancy. Distinguishing indolent tumors from aggressive ones remains a challenge, although recent advances in multiparametric MRI have given clinicians more confidence in choosing men for active surveillance. However, more need to be done to fundamentally understand the molecular and cellular bases that determine the biologic behavior of each of the tumors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ninghan Feng
- Department of Urology, Affiliated Wuxi No. 2 Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi 214002, China
| | - Jiaoti Huang
- Department of Pathology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27514, USA
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Rajaram P, Rivera A, Muthima K, Olveda N, Muchalski H, Chen QH. Second-Generation Androgen Receptor Antagonists as Hormonal Therapeutics for Three Forms of Prostate Cancer. Molecules 2020; 25:E2448. [PMID: 32456317 PMCID: PMC7287767 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25102448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Revised: 05/20/2020] [Accepted: 05/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Enzalutamide is the first second-generation nonsteroidal androgen receptor (AR) antagonist with a strong binding affinity to AR. Most significantly, enzalutamide can prolong not only overall survival time and metastatic free survival time for patients with lethal castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC), but also castration-resistant free survival time for patients with castration-sensitive prostate cancer (CSPC). Enzalutamide has thus been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of both metastatic (in 2012) and non-metastatic (in 2018) CRPC, as well as CSPC (2019). This is an inspiring drug discovery story created by an amazing interdisciplinary collaboration. Equally important, the successful clinical use of enzalutamide proves the notion that the second-generation AR antagonists can serve as hormonal therapeutics for three forms of advanced prostate cancer. This has been further verified by the recent FDA approval of the other two second-generation AR antagonists, apalutamide and darolutamide, for the treatment of prostate cancer. This review focuses on the rational design and discovery of these three second-generation AR antagonists, and then highlights their syntheses, clinical studies, and use. Strategies to overcome the resistance to the second-generation AR antagonists are also reviewed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Hubert Muchalski
- Department of Chemistry, California State University, Fresno, CA 93740, USA; (P.R.); (A.R.); (K.M.); (N.O.)
| | - Qiao-Hong Chen
- Department of Chemistry, California State University, Fresno, CA 93740, USA; (P.R.); (A.R.); (K.M.); (N.O.)
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Pharmacogenomic Biomarkers in Docetaxel Treatment of Prostate Cancer: From Discovery to Implementation. Genes (Basel) 2019; 10:genes10080599. [PMID: 31398933 PMCID: PMC6723793 DOI: 10.3390/genes10080599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2019] [Revised: 08/02/2019] [Accepted: 08/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer is the fifth leading cause of male cancer death worldwide. Although docetaxel chemotherapy has been used for more than fifteen years to treat metastatic castration resistant prostate cancer, the high inter-individual variability of treatment efficacy and toxicity is still not well understood. Since prostate cancer has a high heritability, inherited biomarkers of the genomic signature may be appropriate tools to guide treatment. In this review, we provide an extensive overview and discuss the current state of the art of pharmacogenomic biomarkers modulating docetaxel treatment of prostate cancer. This includes (1) research studies with a focus on germline genomic biomarkers, (2) clinical trials including a range of genetic signatures, and (3) their implementation in treatment guidelines. Based on this work, we suggest that one of the most promising approaches to improve clinical predictive capacity of pharmacogenomic biomarkers in docetaxel treatment of prostate cancer is the use of compound, multigene pharmacogenomic panels defined by specific clinical outcome measures. In conclusion, we discuss the challenges of integrating prostate cancer pharmacogenomic biomarkers into the clinic and the strategies that can be employed to allow a more comprehensive, evidence-based approach to facilitate their clinical integration. Expanding the integration of pharmacogenetic markers in prostate cancer treatment procedures will enhance precision medicine and ultimately improve patient outcomes.
Collapse
|