Cerebral Palsy in North Indian Children: Clinico-etiological Profile and Comorbidities

Dyskinetic Cerebral Palsy in Children: Clinical Perspectives on Common Comorbidities and Health-Related Quality of Life

BACKGROUND

The data on specific comorbidities in children with dyskinetic cerebral palsy (DCP) is limited. We evaluated the pattern of comorbidities and health related quality of life (HRQOL) in these children and compared them between etiological and motor impairment subgroups.

METHODOLOGY

This cross-sectional study was conducted over 18 months in children with DCP of both sex, and age between one and 14 years. Comorbidities were assessed using standardized scales such as gross motor functioning scale (GMFCS), developmental profile-3 (DP-3), developmental behaviour checklist, sleep behaviour questionnaire (SBQ), and caregiver questionnaire.

RESULTS

Sixty-five children with DCP were evaluated (hyperbilirubinemia n = 43, 66% and perinatal asphyxia n = 19, 29%). The majority of children were severely affected in gross motor functioning (level IV 29.2% and level V 53.8%). Epilepsy was seen in 21.5% of cases (19% in hyperbilirubinemia and 32% in asphyxia, p = 0.4). The mean age of onset of seizures was 15.4 + 20.6 months (range 2-72). Visual problems were seen in 54% of cases and included upgaze palsy, squint, refractive error, optic atrophy and cortical blindness. A significant proportion of children with hyperbilirubinemia had upgaze palsy as compared to those with perinatal asphyxia (70% vs. 32%, p 0.01). Rest of the visual problems were not significantly different between the two etiological subgroups. Drooling (87.6%), protein-energy malnutrition (66.6%), and reflux (57%) were the most common gastrointestinal problems in children with DCP. Children with DCP showed problems in social relating (33.8%), anxiety (26.2%), and self-absorbed behaviour (7.7%). However, there were no statistically significant differences between the etiological, motor impairment and age-based subgroups. Children with DCP had high scores on SBQ, suggesting sleep problems. Sleep scores were similar in the hyperbilirubinemia and perinatal asphyxia subgroups. Greater sleep problems were noted in children aged < 4y (70.6 + 10.1 vs. 56.5 + 11.3, p < 0.05 as compared to children above 4y of age) and severe motor impairments (68.2 + 11.3 vs. 57.2 + 13.1, p 0.008 as compared to mild-moderate motor impairment). Poor overall developmental scores were seen in 61.5% children and were significantly associated with GMFCS (p 0.04). The majority of children showed impairments in physical (58.5%), adaptive behaviour (58.5%), social-emotional (50.8%), cognitive (60%) and communication (52%) subscales of DP-3. Cognitive impairment was similar in the etiological (hyperbilirubinemia vs. perinatal asphyxia, p = 0.3), and motor impairment (mild-moderate vs. severe, p = 0.9) subgroups. HRQOL was significantly affected by motor impairment in positioning-transfer (p value 0.0001), and interaction-communication domains (p value 0.0001), however, there was no difference based on the etiology of hyperbilirubinemia and asphyxia.

CONCLUSION

Children with DCP demonstrate several comorbidities and impaired quality of life. These are similar in hyperbilirubinemia and perinatal asphyxia cohorts, expect for significant proportion of upgaze palsy in DCP secondary to hyperbilirubinemia. Younger children have more problematic behaviour and impaired sleep quality. Severe motor disability influences the developmental outcomes, cognition, sleep and HRQOL in children with DCP.

Prevalence and Types of Strabismus in Cerebral Palsy: A Global and Historical Perspective Based on a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

PURPOSE

Strabismus is more frequent in cerebral palsy (CP) than in the normal population, but reports differ how much it is increased. We here examined the global prevalence and types of strabismus in CP, whether esotropia or exotropia is more frequent, and whether the prevalence differs between ethnicities and/or country income levels, and between generations.

METHODS

We compiled in a systematic review and meta-analysis the results of 147 CP studies that report the prevalence of strabismus or the ratio of esotropia to exotropia, and we conducted subgroup analyses for region (income level) and ethnicity. We performed a pooled analysis for the CP strabismus prevalence, and estimated the global number of CP cases with strabismus.

RESULTS

The pooled prevalence of strabismus in CP is 49.8% in high-income countries and 39.8% in lower-income countries. We estimate the global number of strabismus cases in CP as 12.2 million, with 7.6 million males and 4.6 million females, based on current estimates of 29.6 million global CP cases. Esotropia is more frequent than exotropia in Caucasians, while exotropia is more frequent than esotropia in Hispanic and in some Asian and African populations. The strabismus prevalence in CP increases with increasing country income levels.

CONCLUSION

Generational changes in strabismus prevalence appear to reflect a transition of CP types and an increase in prevalence as countries attain higher income and more effective maternal health care. The distribution of esotropia and exotropia in CP patients largely reflects the horizontal strabismus type that is predominant in the subject's ethnicity.

Prevalence and types of strabismus in cerebral palsy: A global and historical perspective based on a systematic review and meta-analysis

Purpose

Strabismus is more frequent in cerebral palsy (CP) than in the normal population, but reports differ how much it is increased. We here examined the global prevalence and types of strabismus in CP, whether esotropia or exotropia is more frequent, and whether the prevalence differs between ethnicities and/or country income levels, and between generations.

Methods

We compiled in a systematic review and meta-analysis the results of 147 CP studies that report the prevalence of strabismus or the ratio of esotropia to exotropia, and we conducted subgroup analyses for region (income level) and ethnicity. We performed a pooled analysis for the CP strabismus prevalence, and estimated the global number of CP cases with strabismus.

Results

The pooled prevalence of strabismus in CP is 49.8% in high-income countries and 39.8% in lower-income countries. We estimate the global number of strabismus cases in CP as 12.2 million, with 7.6 million males and 4.6 million females, based on current estimates of 29.6 million global CP cases. Esotropia is more frequent than exotropia in Caucasians, while exotropia is more frequent than esotropia in Hispanic and in some Asian and African populations. The strabismus prevalence in CP increases with increasing country income levels.

Conclusion

Generational changes in strabismus prevalence appear to reflect a transition of CP types and an increase in prevalence as countries attain higher income and more effective maternal health care. The distribution of esotropia and exotropia in CP patients largely reflects the horizontal strabismus type that is predominant in the subject's ethnicity.

Hips in cerebral palsy: A clinico-radiological evaluation of hip subluxation in cerebral palsy

Background

The study was done on children with cerebral palsy in the ages of 2-18 years, with focus on hip subluxation. The objectives of the study were to look at the distribution of different types of CP in the target population; the prevalence of hip subluxation and its association with types and severity of CP.

Methods

This is a cross sectional descriptive observational study, done on a hospital out-patient setting. Children with cerebral palsy of ages 2-18 years were recruited and clinically evaluated. Radiological evaluation of the pelvis was done for all subjects. Primary outcome measure was presence of hip subluxation described as Migration Percentage >30% in one or both hips. Prevalence of subluxation and its association with various subtypes of CP were assessed.

Results

203 subjects with cerebral palsy underwent the study. Spastic type of presentation constituted the majority (82.8%). Quadriplegic distribution (53.2%) and functional level of GMFCS 5 (39.4%) were most prevalent. Hip subluxation was noted in 105 of the 203 children with CP (51.7%). 3 patients had complete dislocation of the hip (1.4%). There was an increased prevalence of hip subluxation noted with increasing GMFCS E&R score as well as increasing topographical distribution, which were both statistically significant on univariate analysis (p < 0.005). On multivariate analysis, it was found that neither topographical distribution nor GMFCS E&R score were independent risk factors.

Conclusions

Hip subluxation is a significant, debilitating and common treatable complication in children with CP. Subjects with widespread topographical distribution and poor functional ambulatory status are at an increased risk of developing hip subluxation. There also exists a correlation between GMFCS scores and topographical classification and hence, neither are risk factors independent of each other. This study is a first of its kind in the Indian scenario and it hopes to be a step in the direction towards risk stratification, early diagnosis and prompt specific treatment of hip complications in children with cerebral palsy.

Vitamin D levels in children with cerebral palsy

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to assess serum vitamin D levels and related factors in children with cerebral palsy (CP).

METHODS

One hundred and nineteen children with CP between the ages of 1 year to 10 years 9 months who were admitted to the children's inpatient rehabilitation unit of a tertiary rehabilitation hospital between January 1, 2017, and December 31, 2018, were included in this study. Demographic and clinical characteristics were obtained from the patient files. CP types and serum 25 hydroxyvitamin D (25OHD) levels were recorded. Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS) was used to assess the functional level.

RESULTS

Mean age was 5.1±2.9 years. Forty-two (35.3%) were girls, 105 (88.3%) were spastic, and 14 (11.7%) were ataxic and mixed type CP. Mean GMFCS level was 4 (IQR:2). Thirty-one (26.1%) were getting extra liquid feed while the rest were eating a normal diet. Mean serum 25OHD level was 27.4±15.7 (3-79) ng/mL. Vitamin D levels were normal in 68 children (57.1%), whereas 36 (30.3%) had vitamin D insufficiency and 15 (12.6%) showed vitamin D deficiency. Those whose serum vitamin D levels were within a normal range had a median age of 3.8 (IQR:4.2) years. On the other hand, mean age was 6.4 (4.3) years for those with low vitamin D level (p <  0.0001). Vitamin D level was 19.8 (21.4) ng/mL in those (n = 88) who had regular diets, whereas it was 31.0 [16] ng/mL in those (n = 31) who were getting extra liquid feed (p = 0.015). There was no statistically significant correlation between vitamin D level and gender, GMFCS, CP type, season or antiepileptic drug treatment. A binary logistic regression model showed that older age and having only regular meals were significant risk factors for low vitamin D.

CONCLUSION

In this study, 42.9% of the children with CP had low vitamin D. Older children with CP or those who had regular diets were higher risk groups in terms of low vitamin D.

Frequência de comorbidades em crianças com paralisia cerebral de diferentes níveis de função motora grossa

ResumoIntrodução: A paralisia cerebral (PC) é uma desordem predominantemente motora, no entanto, pode estar associada a outras disfunções, que também impactam a funcionalidade das crianças. Objetivo: Documentar a frequência das comorbidades em crianças com PC nos diferentes níveis do Sistema de Classificação da Função Motora Grossa (GMFCS). Métodos: Estudo observacional, descritivo, de corte transversal. Foram coletados dados de 70 crianças com diagnóstico de PC, que recebiam tratamento fisioterapêutico em Belo Horizonte e na região metropolitana, por meio de entrevistas, e realizada análise descritiva e quantitativa. Resultados: As comorbidades mais frequentes foram as limitações do uso das mãos e dos braços, deficiências de continência urinária e fecal, deficiências da voz e da fala, deficiências de comportamento limitação para andar e epilepsia. Um número maior de comorbidades foi encontrado em crianças com maior comprometimento da função motora grossa. Conclusão: Profissionais da saúde devem observar com atenção a ocorrência das comorbidades na PC, proporcionando intervenções para preveni-las ou tratá-las, melhorando a funcionalidade desses indivíduos. 

Spectrum of Movement Disorders and Correlation with Functional Status in Children with Cerebral Palsy

OBJECTIVES

To detail the spectrum of movement disorders (MD) among children with cerebral palsy (CP) and assess impact on functional status.

METHODS

In this cross-sectional study, children with CP were recruited and examined for various MDs. Tone abnormality was assessed using Hypertonia Assessment Tool (HAT), functional status using Gross Motor Function Classification System Expanded and Revised (GMFCS E&R), Manual Ability Classification System (MACS), and Communication Function Classification System (CFCS). These scores were classified into mild-moderate (level I-III)/severe (level IV-V) categories.

RESULTS

A total of 113 children (mean age 4.9 ± 3.4 y, 66.4% boys) were enrolled. MDs were noted in 52 (46%) children; the most frequent were dystonia (28%), chorea (14%), choreoathetosis (8%). Of 64 children with quadriparetic CP, 27 (42.2%) demonstrated MDs. Of 19 children with hemiparetic CP, 2 (10.5%) had MDs. Of 16 children with dyskinetic CP, 15 (93%) had MDs. Children with dyskinetic CP had significantly higher frequency of MDs (p = 0.001). There was no difference in occurrence of all MDs or dystonia aloneamongst the two categories (mild-moderate/severe) of GMFCS E&R levels, CFCS levels or MACS levels.

CONCLUSION

Although diverse MDs occur frequently in CP, these do not correlate with the broad functional status of the child. The study is limited by small sample size.