Progressive changes in detrusor function and micturition patterns with chronic bladder ischemia

Effects of Internal Iliac Artery Ligation on Stress and Urge Incontinence: A Retrospective Evaluation

INTRODUCTION

Does bilateral internal iliac artery ligation (BIIAL), a fundamental intervention in the treatment of postpartum hemorrhage, increase the risk of urinary incontinence (UI)? This study aims to shed light on the effects of BIIAL on bladder perfusion and urinary system integrity, thereby elucidating urinary function disorders following pelvic surgery.

METHODS

Demographic and medical data were collected from a total of 192 female patients, with and without the application of BIIAL. Urinary incontinence conditions were assessed using the Questionnaire for Urinary Incontinence Diagnosis (QUID) test. The data collection process was conducted according to ethical standards, and the results were analyzed to determine the types of incontinence.

RESULTS

In the group that underwent BIIAL, the number of pregnancies and births was statistically higher compared to the control group. A significant effect of BIIAL was seen in cases of urge urinary incontinence (UUI), while no meaningful impact was detected on stress urinary incontinence (SUI). After the BIIAL procedure, an increase in the rate of urinary leakage was seen in certain cases.

CONCLUSION

Bilateral internal iliac artery ligation has proven to be a safe and effective intervention in the management of postpartum hemorrhage. The findings suggest a potential impact of BIIAL on UUI but not on SUI. Comprehensive and long-term prospective studies are needed to further investigate the effects of BIIAL on pelvic blood flow and bladder functions.

Pathophysiology of Overactive Bladder and Pharmacologic Treatments Including β3-Adrenoceptor Agonists -Basic Research Perspectives

Overactive bladder (OAB) is a symptom-based syndrome defined by urinary urgency, frequency, and nocturia with or without urge incontinence. The causative pathology is diverse; including bladder outlet obstruction (BOO), bladder ischemia, aging, metabolic syndrome, psychological stress, affective disorder, urinary microbiome, localized and systemic inflammatory responses, etc. Several hypotheses have been suggested as mechanisms of OAB generation; among them, neurogenic, myogenic, and urothelial mechanisms are well-known hypotheses. Also, a series of local signals called autonomous myogenic contraction, micromotion, or afferent noises, which can occur during bladder filling, may be induced by the leak of acetylcholine (ACh) or urothelial release of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). They can be transmitted to the central nervous system through afferent fibers to trigger coordinated urgency-related detrusor contractions. Antimuscarinics, commonly known to induce smooth muscle relaxation by competitive blockage of muscarinic receptors in the parasympathetic postganglionic nerve, have a minimal effect on detrusor contraction within therapeutic doses. In fact, they have a predominant role in preventing signals in the afferent nerve transmission process. β3-adrenergic receptor (AR) agonists inhibit afferent signals by predominant inhibition of mechanosensitive Aδ-fibers in the normal bladder. However, in pathologic conditions such as spinal cord injury, it seems to inhibit capsaicin-sensitive C-fibers. Particularly, mirabegron, a β3-agonist, prevents ACh release in the BOO-induced detrusor overactivity model by parasympathetic prejunctional mechanisms. A recent study also revealed that vibegron may have 2 mechanisms of action: inhibition of ACh from cholinergic efferent nerves in the detrusor and afferent inhibition via urothelial β3-AR.

Association Between Serum Copper Levels and Urinary Incontinence in Adult Men

Urinary incontinence (UI) is a major health burden to aging patients. The function of the trace element copper in male UI is unclear. To elaborate on the impact of serum copper levels on UI, we investigated the association between serum copper levels and UI using data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), a cross-sectional survey of male participants aged 20 years old and older in the United States from 2011 to 2016. We performed weighted multivariable logistic and linear regression models to evaluate the association between serum copper levels and UI. Compared with serum copper levels in quartile 1 (Q1), serum copper levels in Q2 and Q3 were associated with stress urinary incontinence (SUI) after adjusting for all potential confounders (Q2, odds ratio [OR] = 0.292, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.093-0.920, P = 0.047; Q3, OR = 0.326, 95% CI = 0.113-0.937, P = 0.049). No significance was found between serum copper levels and other types of UI. Our findings revealed that the serum copper levels were inversely related to SUI in adult males. Race and education level might modulate this relationship. Further studies are warranted for validation.

Role of Pelvic Ischemia in Human Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms and Sexual Function Among Patients With Common Iliac Artery Obstruction Undergoing Revascularization Surgery

PURPOSE

In this case-control study, we explored the relationships among pelvic ischemia, lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS), and sexual function in patients with common iliac artery steno-occlusive disease, along with the potential therapeutic role of revascularization.

METHODS

We recruited 33 men diagnosed with radiologically documented common iliac artery stenosis (>80%) who underwent endovascular revascularization, and 33 healthy controls. Five patients had obstruction of the abdominal aorta (Leriche syndrome). The International Prostate Symptom Score (IPSS), Overactive Bladder Questionnaire, and International Index of Erectile Function were used to evaluate LUTS and erectile function. Medical history, anthropometrics, urinalysis, and blood tests, including levels of serum prostate-specific antigen, urea, creatinine, triglycerides, cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein, high-density lipoprotein, and hemoglobin A1c, were recorded. Uroflow (maximum flow, average flow, voided volume, and voiding time) and ultrasound parameters (prostate volume and postvoid residual [PVR]) were also measured. Patients with moderate-to-severe LUTS (IPSS>7) underwent complete urodynamic investigation. Patients were examined at baseline and 6 months postoperatively.

RESULTS

Patients exhibited poorer total IPSS (P<0.001), storage (P=0.001) and voiding symptom (P<0.001) subscores, as well as worse OAB-bother (P=0.015), OAB-sleep (P<0.001), OAB-coping (P<0.001), and OAB-total (P<0.001) scores than control participants. Additionally, erectile function (P=0.002), sexual desire (P<0.001), and satisfaction from intercourse (P=0.016) deteriorated in the patient group. Six months postoperatively, significant improvements were observed in erectile function (P=0.008), orgasm (P=0.021), and desire (P=0.014). Similarly, PVR significantly improved (P=0.012), while fewer patients experienced increased bladder sensation (P=0.035) and detrusor overactivity (P=0.035) upon postoperative urodynamic study. No significant differences were found between patients with bilateral and unilateral obstruction or between either of those groups and Leriche syndrome patients.

CONCLUSION

Patients with steno-occlusive disease of the common iliac artery experienced more severe LUTS and sexual dysfunction than healthy controls. Endovascular revascularization alleviated LUTS in patients with moderate-to-severe symptoms and improved bladder and erectile function.

Pathophysiological Mechanisms Involved in Overactive Bladder/Detrusor Overactivity

Purpose of Review

To examine the latest published findings on the pathophysiological mechanisms involved in the development of overactive bladder (OAB) and detrusor overactivity (DO), and to identify common pathways linked to the risk factors associated with these conditions.

Recent Findings

Evidence is accumulating, both clinical and experimental, that many of the factors linked to the development of OAB/DO, including ageing, bladder outlet obstruction, psychological stress, and obesity are associated with reduced bladder blood flow. This induces local tissue inflammation with cytokine release and enhanced oxidative stress, ultimately resulting in altered detrusor sensitivity, detrusor hypertrophy and fibrosis, together with afferent hypersensitivity. These mechanisms would explain the symptoms of urgency and frequency observed in OAB patients. Although not a characteristic of OAB, undetected low level bacterial infections of the bladder have been proposed to explain the OAB symptoms in patients resistant to standard treatments. In this condition, inflammatory responses without reductions in perfusion activate the inflammatory pathways.

Summary

Evidence is mounting that poor bladder perfusion and local inflammatory responses are central mechanisms involved in the development of OAB/DO. As our understanding of these pathophysiological mechanisms advances, new avenues for drug development will be identified and ultimately treatment may become more individualized depending on the particular pathway involved and the drugs available.

Oxidative Stress and Its Relation to Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms

The aim of this review is to discuss how to link lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) and oxidative stress (OS) and to define relevant targets for therapeutic intervention. Narrative review based on published literature. Many of the multifactorial pathophysiological mechanisms behind LUTS can initiate reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. Assuming that OS is a consequence rather than a primary cause of LUTS it seems reasonable to identify both the disease mechanism initiating LUTS, and the source of ROS involved. There are many possible sources of ROS overproduction, but the NADPH oxidase (NOX) family of enzymes is the primary source; NOX activation in turn, may result in the activation of secondary ROS sources, i.e., ROS-dependent ROS production. Selective NOX inhibition therefore seems an attractive therapeutic strategy in LUTS treatment. The finding of NOX2 localization to centers in the brain associated with micturition control, opens up for further studies of NOX involvement in the central control of micturition, normally and in disease. Further information on the localization of the different isoforms of NOX in the LUT e.g., the bladder wall and its components and the prostate, is desirable. To optimize treatment, the pathophysiological mechanism initiating LUTS, and the activated isoform of NOX, should be identified. Unfortunately, in most cases of LUTS this is currently not possible. Even if selective NOX inhibitors have entered the clinical trial stage for treatment of disorders other than LUT dysfunction, their efficacy for LUTS treatment has to be demonstrated. If this can be achieved, an attractive approach would be combination of selective NOX inhibition with established drug therapies.

Clinical Correlation of Bladder Electron Microscopic Characteristics in Patients with Detrusor Underactivity of Various Etiologies

This study aimed to investigate the ultrastructural characteristics of the bladder of patients with detrusor underactivity (DU) of various etiologies. Twenty-five patients with DU and control subjects underwent urodynamic testing and transmission electron microscopic examination of bladder specimens. The epithelium, lamina propria, and muscle layers were analyzed separately. The DU bladders exhibited total epithelial denudation (52%). In the bladders with remaining epithelium, apical cell uroplakins (44.4%) and tight junction complexes (77.8%) were also noted. The lamina propria was characterized by loose extracellular connective tissue (48%) and a lack of nerve terminals (76%). Smooth muscle shrinkage and a loss of their regular spindle shape (91.6%) were also noted in the detrusor layer. Patients with DU with intact epithelial cell layers had significantly larger void volumes and maximal flow rates than those with mild or severe epithelial denudation. Patients with remaining nerve terminals in lamina propria had a stronger first sensation of filling and smaller residual urine volume than those without nerve terminals. The proportion of ultrastructural defects of the bladder was not significantly different among patients with DU of various etiologies and treatment outcomes. DU bladders were characterized by ultrastructural defects in the entire bladder, and the defects were correlated to clinical parameters.

Do we have enough evidence to propose a urinary biomarker of bladder ischemia? A systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

Urinary bladder ischemia has been implicated in the pathogenesis of lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS). However, research regarding urinary molecular markers for diagnosis and prognosis of pelvic ischemia is still premature, hindering further implementation in clinical practice. The aim of this study is to systematically appraise biomarkers associated with bladder ischemia detected in urine.

METHODS

We performed a systematic review of PubMed/Medline, Embase, Web of Science, and the Cochrane Library in October 2021 according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) statement. A subsequent reference search of retrieved articles was also performed. The identified reports were reviewed according to Systematic Review Center for Laboratory Animal Experimentation's risk-of-bias tool for animal studies.

RESULTS

Eight publications were selected for this analysis. The included reports used 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) (in eight studies) as urinary marker of bladder ischemia. The pooled mean difference for urinary 8-OHdG levels between study and control groups was 13.73 ng/mg creatinine (95% CI, 9.79-17.67; P < .001; I²  = 69%) for rat studies and 3.71 ng/mg creatinine (95% CI, 2.91-4.51; P < .001; I²  = 94%) for rabbit studies. The result remained statistically significant favoring the control group independent of the type of intervention used to achieve bladder ischemia. Regarding secondary outcomes, mean voided volume and micturition interval were significantly lower in the ischemia group.

CONCLUSION

The lack of human randomized controlled trials is a major limitation. 8-OHdG is a urinary biomarker to be investigated in future studies for diagnosis and prognosis of LUTS in patients with vascular injury or bladder outlet obstruction.

Oxidative Stress Biomarkers in Age-Related Lower Urinary Tract Disorders: A Systematic Review

PURPOSE

To conduct a systematic review of preclinical and clinical peer-reviewed evidence linking alterations in oxidative stress biomarkers or outcome measures that were also prevalent in specific age-related lower urinary tract (LUT) disorders.

METHODS

PubMed, Scopus, CINAHL, and Embase were searched for peer-reviewed studies published between January 2000 and March 2021. Animal and human studies that reported on the impact of oxidative stress in age-related LUT disorders through structural or functional changes in the LUT and changes in biomarkers were included. The PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) protocol was followed.

RESULTS

Of 882 articles identified, 21 studies (13 animal; 8 human) met inclusion criteria. Across LUT disorders, common structural changes were increased bladder and prostate weights, ischemic damage, nerve damage and detrusor muscle hypertrophy; common functional changes included decreased bladder contraction, increased bladder sensation and excitability, decreased perfusion, and increased inflammation. The disorders were associated with increased levels of biomarkers of oxidative stress that provided evidence of either molecular damage, protective mechanisms against oxidative stress, neural changes, or inflammation. In all cases, the effect on biomarkers and enzymes was greater in aged groups compared to younger groups.

CONCLUSION

Increased oxidative stress, often associated with mitochondrial dysfunction, plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of age-related LUT disorders and may explain their increasing prevalence. This systematic review identifies potential markers of disease progression and treatment opportunities; further research is warranted to evaluate these markers and the mechanisms by which these changes may lead to age-related LUT disorders.

Cellular Stress and Molecular Responses in Bladder Ischemia

The concept of bladder ischemia as a contributing factor to detrusor overactivity and lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) is evolving. Bladder ischemia as a consequence of pelvic arterial atherosclerosis was first documented in experimental models and later in elderly patients with LUTS. It was shown that early-stage moderate ischemia produces detrusor overactivity, while prolonged severe ischemia provokes changes consistent with detrusor underactivity. Recent studies imply a central role of cellular energy sensors, cellular stress sensors, and stress response molecules in bladder responses to ischemia. The cellular energy sensor adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase was shown to play a role in detrusor overactivity and neurodegeneration in bladder ischemia. The cellular stress sensors apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 and caspase-3 along with heat shock proteins were characterized as important contributing factors to smooth muscle structural modifications and apoptotic responses in bladder ischemia. Downstream pathways seem to involve hypoxia-inducible factor, transforming growth factor beta, vascular endothelial growth factor, and nerve growth factor. Molecular responses to bladder ischemia were associated with differential protein expression, the accumulation of non-coded amino acids, and post-translational modifications of contractile proteins and stress response molecules. Further insight into cellular stress responses in bladder ischemia may provide novel diagnostic and therapeutic targets against LUTS.

Aging-related severe hypertension induces detrusor underactivity in rats

AIMS

Aging is an obvious risk factor for detrusor underactivity. We investigated the effects of aging on bladder function in spontaneously hypertensive rats.

MAIN METHODS

Male spontaneously hypertensive rats and Wistar Kyoto rats (used as normotensive controls) at the ages of 18, 36, 54, or 72 weeks were used. Bladder weight, blood pressure, bladder blood flow, and urodynamic and renal parameters were measured. Additionally, detrusor thickness and renal histology were evaluated.

KEY FINDINGS

In spontaneously hypertensive rats, significant increases were observed in bladder weight/body weight ratio, blood pressure, detrusor thickness, intercontraction interval, urine output, serum creatinine, and renal glomerular and tubular scores, and decreases in bladder blood flow and urine osmolality at 72 weeks as compared to those at 18 weeks. In spontaneously hypertensive rats, significant increases were observed in single voided volume, post voiding residual urine volume, and bladder capacity, with decrease in voiding efficiency were observed at 54 or 72 weeks than at 18 weeks. However, there were no significant differences in blood pressure, urodynamic and renal parameters, detrusor thickness and renal histology among Wistar Kyoto rats of different ages.

SIGNIFICANCE

In spontaneously hypertensive rats, aging induces significant increases in blood pressure, single voided volume, post voiding residual urine volume, intercontraction intervals and urine output, and decreases in voiding efficiency and bladder blood flow indicative of detrusor underactivity. Aging-related severe hypertension could induce voiding dysfunction such as detrusor underactivity via severe bladder ischemia and polyuria. Aged spontaneously hypertensive rats may be useful animal models for detrusor underactivity.

Impairment of AMPK-α2 augments detrusor contractions in bladder ischemia

PURPOSE

Ischemia disrupts cellular energy homeostasis. Adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase alpha-2 (AMPK-α2) is a subunit of AMPK that senses cellular energy deprivation and signals metabolic stress. Our goal was to examine the expression levels and functional role of AMPK-α2 in bladder ischemia.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Iliac artery atherosclerosis and bladder ischemia were engendered in apolipoprotein E knockout rats by partial arterial endothelial denudation using a balloon catheter. After eight weeks, total and phosphorylated AMPK-α2 expression was analyzed by western blotting. Structural integrity of AMPK-α2 protein was assessed by Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Functional role of AMPK-α2 was examined by treating animals with the AMPK activator 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-1-beta-D ribofuranoside (AICAR). Tissue contractility was measured in the organ bath and bladder nerve density was examined by immunostaining.

RESULTS

Total AMPK-α2 expression increased in bladder ischemia, while phosphorylated AMPK-α2 was significantly downregulated. LC-MS/MS suggested post-translational modification of AMPK-α2 functional domains including phosphorylation sites, suggesting accumulation of catalytically inactive AMPK-α2 in bladder ischemia. Treatment of rats with AICAR diminished the force of overactive detrusor contractions and increased bladder capacity but did not have a significant effect on the frequency of bladder contractions. AICAR diminished contractile reactivity of ischemic tissues in the organ bath and prevented loss of nerve fibers in bladder ischemia.

CONCLUSIONS

Ischemia induces post-translational modification of AMPK-α2 protein. Impairment of AMPK-α2 may contribute to overactive detrusor contractions and loss of nerve fibers in bladder ischemia. AMPK activators may have therapeutic potential against detrusor overactivity and neurodegeneration in bladder conditions involving ischemia.

A preliminary study of bilateral color mapping of pig bladder vasculature demonstrates potential for acute hemi-ischemic events

Background

Chronic ischemia is a known risk factor for the development of lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) and bladder hypocontractility. Less is known, however, about the impact of acute ischemia. Classic teaching suggests that collateral circulation is robust in the bladder and, therefore, loss of a single source of blood flow should have no deleterious effect. This study aims to provide visual evidence that segmental vascular supply is critical for maintaining adequate perfusion to the bladder.

Methods

Ex vivo pig bladders were cannulated bilaterally in the superior vesical arteries and perfused using contrasting red and green dye. Images were collected at each step of the perfusion dyeing process and these images were analyzed using a custom program to calculate the average hue of each side. Statistical analysis was performed using Student’s t-test.

Results

The two halves being perfused by separate arteries showed a statistically significant difference when compared (P<0.05) on both the outer wall (n=9) and in the mucosal layer (n=4). On the outside wall, the average normalized hue of the green halves was 27.5°±14.3°, while the average normalized hue of the red halves was −58.7°±3.1°. In the mucosa, the average normalized hue of the green halves was 34.5°±17.4°, while the average normalized hue of the red halves was −51.5°±3.5°.

Conclusions

This study identified a novel color mapping method to study pig bladder vascular supply. The results demonstrated a lack of collateral blood flow, highlighting the possibly of acute hemi-ischemic event. However, further research in the effect of acute ischemia on bladder function is necessary.

Post-Translational Modification Networks of Contractile and Cellular Stress Response Proteins in Bladder Ischemia

Molecular mechanisms underlying bladder dysfunction in ischemia, particularly at the protein and protein modification levels and downstream pathways, remain largely unknown. Here we describe a comparison of protein sequence variations in the ischemic and normal bladder tissues by measuring the mass differences of the coding amino acids and actual residues crossing the proteome. A large number of nonzero delta masses (11,056) were detected, spanning over 1295 protein residues. Clustering analysis identified 12 delta mass clusters that were significantly dysregulated, involving 30 upregulated (R² > 0.5, ratio > 2, p < 0.05) and 33 downregulated (R² > 0.5, ratio < −2, p < 0.05) proteins in bladder ischemia. These protein residues had different mass weights from those of the standard coding amino acids, suggesting the formation of non-coded amino acid (ncAA) residues in bladder ischemia. Pathway, gene ontology, and protein–protein interaction network analyses of these ischemia-associated delta-mass containing proteins indicated that ischemia provoked several amino acid variations, potentially post-translational modifications, in the contractile proteins and stress response molecules in the bladder. Accumulation of ncAAs may be a novel biomarker of smooth muscle dysfunction, with diagnostic potential for bladder dysfunction. Our data suggest that systematic assessment of global protein modifications may be crucial to the characterization of ischemic conditions in general and the pathomechanism of bladder dysfunction in ischemia.

Phases of decompensation during acute ischemia demonstrated in an ex vivo porcine bladder model

Background

The aim of this project was to develop an ex-vivo porcine bladder model to test the effects of increasing durations of acute ischemia on detrusor function.

Methods

Porcine bladders were perfused through bilateral vesical arteries at physiologic flow (4 mL/min) and filled through a urethral catheter. Intravesical pressures were continuously recorded using standard urodynamics equipment. Bladder contractions, with simulated voiding, were induced by arterial infusion of KCl at 250 mL. Total, passive, and active pressures were recorded for each contraction and data were normalized to the control fill. Bladders underwent the following perfusion protocol by adjusting the arterial flow rates: Equilibration (4 mL/min), control (4 mL/min), partial ischemia (2 mL/min), global ischemia (0 mL/min) and reperfusion (4 mL/min). Perfusion periods were held for 15 min for one group and 30 min for another group of bladders.

Results

Porcine bladders (N=19) including 8 (15 min group) and 11 (30 min group) were used. With 15 min ischemia, passive pressure increased 39% (P=0.03) and the active pressure decreased 23% (P=0.002). Total pressure remained constant, identifying a compensated phase. Values returned to baseline with reperfusion. With 30 min ischemia, passive pressure remained unchanged. However, there was a decrease in total pressure 34% (P<0.001) and active pressure 61% (P<0.001), which incompletely recovered to baseline values, identifying a decompensated phase with incomplete recovery upon reperfusion.

Conclusion

In the porcine bladder, 15 min ischemia resulted in a compensated phase and 30 min ischemia resulted in a decompensated phase of detrusor function. This study provides mechanistic insight into the natural history of ischemia-mediated voiding dysfunction.

Regulation of Cellular Stress Signaling in Bladder Ischemia

Introduction

The etiology of lower urinary tract symptoms in patients with non-obstructed non-neurogenic bladder remains largely unknown. Clinical studies divulged a significant correlation between reduced bladder blood flow and low bladder compliance. Animal models of bladder ischemia displayed structural modifications, characterized by loss of smooth muscle cells and accumulation of connective tissue in the bladder wall. The underlying mechanisms contributing to structural damage in bladder ischemia remain largely elusive. We previously reported that structural modifications in bladder ischemia correlate with upregulated stress proteins and cell survival signaling, suggesting the potential role of cellular stress in ischemic damage. However, stress response molecules and downstream pathways eliciting bladder damage in ischemia remain largely undetermined.

Methods

Using a rat model of bladder ischemia along with a cell culture hypoxia model, we investigated stress signaling molecules in the ischemic bladder tissues and hypoxic bladder smooth muscle cells.

Results

Our data suggest simultaneous upregulation of two major cellular stress-sensing molecules, namely apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1) and caspase-3, implying degenerative insult via stress signaling pathway in bladder ischemia. Consistent with bladder ischemia, incubation of cultured human bladder smooth muscle cells at low oxygen tension increased both ASK1 and caspase-3 expression, insinuating hypoxia as an essential factor in ASK1 and caspase-3 upregulation. Gene deletion of ASK1 by ASK1 siRNA in cultured smooth muscle cells prevented caspase-3 upregulation by hypoxia, suggesting caspase-3 regulation by ASK1 under the ischemic/hypoxic conditions. Upregulation of ASK1 and caspase-3 in rat bladder ischemia and human bladder smooth muscle cell hypoxia was associated with subcellular structural modifications consistent with the initial stages of apoptotic insult.

Conclusion

Our data suggest that stress sensing by ASK1 and caspase-3 may contribute to subcellular structural damage and low bladder compliance. The ASK1/caspase-3 pathway may provide therapeutic targets against cellular stress and degenerative responses in bladder ischemia.

Ultrastructural changes in the underactive bladder

Underactive bladder (UAB) is a symptom complex suggestive of detrusor underactivity (DU). Although it implies a primary dysfunction of the detrusor muscle, many other conditions such as advanced age, neurogenic factors, and bladder outlet obstruction also lead to UAB. The current understanding of the pathophysiology directly leading to UAB is limited. We believe that by identifying the morphological changes associated with UAB might shed light on this. Therefore, we searched literature with keywords of electron microscopy, ultrastructure, UAB, and DU to review current ultrastructural evidence concerning UAB.

Are oxidative stress and ischemia significant causes of bladder damage leading to lower urinary tract dysfunction? Report from the ICI-RS 2019

Several studies indicate that pelvic ischemia and oxidative stress may play a significant role in lower urinary tract dysfunction (LUTD), including detrusor overactivity (DO)/overactive bladder (OAB) and detrusor underactivity (DU)/underactive bladder (UAB). The present article addresses proposal 1: "Are oxidative stress and ischemia significant causes of bladder damage leading to LUTD?" from the 2019 International Consultation on Incontinence-Research Society (ICI-RS) meeting. Bladder ischemia in animals and humans is briefly described, along with the proposed progression from ischemia to LUTD. Bladder ischemia is compared with ischemia of other organs, and the ongoing development of pelvic ischemia animal models is discussed. In addition, the distribution of blood within the bladder during filling and voiding and the challenges of quantification of blood flow in vivo are described. Furthermore, oxidative stress, including potential biomarkers and treatments, and challenges regarding antioxidant therapy for the treatment of LUTD are discussed. Finally, seven critical research questions and proposed studies to answer those questions were identified as priorities that would lead to major advances in the understanding and treatment of lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS)/LUTD associated with pelvic ischemia and oxidative stress.

The role of bladder wall thickness in the evaluation of detrusor underactivity: Development of a clinical nomogram

AIMS

The aim of our study was to investigate noninvasive predictors for detrusor underactivity (DUA) in male patients with lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) and benign prostatic enlargement (BPE).

METHODS

A consecutive series of patients aged 45 years or older with non-neurogenic LUTS were prospectively enrolled. Patients underwent standard diagnostic assessment including International Prostatic Symptoms Score, uroflowmetry, urodynamic studies (cystometry and pressure-flow studies), transrectal ultrasound of the prostate, and ultrasound measurements of the bladder wall thickness (BWT). Logistic regression analysis was used to investigate predictors of DUA, defined as a bladder contractility index < 100 mm H₂ O. A nomogram was developed based on the multivariable logistic regression model.

RESULTS

Overall 448 patients with a mean age of 66 ± 11 years were enrolled. In a multivariable logistic age-adjusted regression model BWT (odds ratio [OR]: 0.50 per mm; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.30-0-66; P = .001) and Qmax (OR: 0.75 per mL/s; 95% CI, 0.70-0.81; P = .001) were significant predictors for DUA. The nomogram based on the model presented good discrimination (area under the curve [AUC]: 0.82), good calibration (Hosmer-Lemeshow test, P > .05) and a net benefit in the range of probabilities between 10% and 80%.

CONCLUSIONS

According to our results, BWT and Qmax can noninvasively predict the presence of DUA in patients with LUTS and BPE. Although our study should be confirmed in a larger prospective cohort, we present the first available nomogram for the prediction of DUA in patients with LUTS.

Resistance Exercise Evokes Changes on Urinary Bladder Function and Morphology in Hypoestrogen Rats

Serum levels of estrogen decrease at climacterium and directly interfere with the urogenital tract. Urinary bladder (UB) is responsive to hormonal changes, especially estrogen. Resistance exercise elicits benefits on severe chronic diseases. Nevertheless, it is still unclear whether the resistance exercise directly affects the UB in ovariectomized (OVx) rats. This study focused on investigating the effects of resistance exercise on UB function and morphology in OVx and control rats. Adult female Wistar rats (∼250-300 g, 14-16 weeks old) [control (n = 20) and OVx (n = 20)] were divided in the following groups: sedentary (SED), and trained over 1 week (acute), 3 weeks (intermediate), and 10 weeks (chronic). Training was carried out in a ladder, with six bouts in alternate days with 75% of body weight load attached to the tail of the animal. Afterward, the animals were isoflurane anesthetized for evaluation of intravesical pressure (IP) changes upon topical administration of acetylcholine (Ach) and noradrenaline (NE) on the UB. At the end of the experiment, the UB was harvested for histological analysis and stained with hematoxylin-eosin and picrosirius red. Ach increased the IP in both OVx and control rats, whereas NE decreased the IP. However, the acute and intermediate groups showed attenuated responses to Ach and NE, while the chronic groups recovered the responses to Ach and NE close to those observed in SED groups. Acute and intermediate groups also showed decreased thickness of the muscular layer, with a reversal of the process with chronic training. In the OVx groups, the acute training reduced the thickness of the smooth muscle and mucosal layers, whereas chronic training increased it. Urothelium thickness decreased in the OVx SED and acute groups. Collagen type I fibers (CI-F) reduced in OVx SED acute and intermediate groups, while collagen type III fibers (CIII-F) increased in the OVx acute group. In the mucosal layer, the volume density of CFs reduced in OVx rats compared to control groups and chronic training resulted in their recovery. Our data suggest that chronic resistance exercise for 10 weeks reversed the functional and morphological changes caused by hypoestrogenism.

Bladder attack: transient bladder ischemia leads to a reversible decrease in detrusor compliance

Background

The deleterious effects of chronic ischemia on bladder function have been extensively studied; however, evaluation and characterization of the effects of acute ischemia and hypoxia are lacking. The present study examined pig and human detrusor smooth muscle (DSM) strips, in combination with an isolated perfused working pig bladder model to evaluate the relationship between transient ischemia and bladder function.

Methods

Organ bath and myographic studies were performed using pig and human DSM strips exposed to starvation/hypoxia conditions. Analogous conditions were then recreated in the ex vivo bladder preparation. Filled bladders were then treated with intravascular carbachol to induce contraction and subsequent void. An intravesical transducer continuously monitored changes in bladder pressure, while a tissue pO₂ monitor analyzed changes in oxygenation.

Results

After 120 min in starved/hypoxic conditions, both pig and human DSM strips demonstrated significantly increased resting tone, with a greater than two-fold increase in force over control. This was effectively blocked with atropine. DSM strips also demonstrated significantly weaker contractions; however, contractile force was nearly recovered following 15-min exposure to replete/oxygenated buffer. In the ex vivo bladder preparation, filling under ischemic conditions yielded a 225% increase in end-fill vesical pressures (P_ves) compared to controls. End-fill P_ves returned to baseline with reperfusion during a subsequent filling cycle.

Conclusions

Transient ischemia/hypoxia leads to an acute increase in tone in both DSM strips and ex vivo pig bladder. Remarkably, the effect is reversible with re-perfusion and may be blocked with anticholinergics, suggesting a relationship between acute ischemia and increased local acetylcholine release.

Detrusor Underactivity and the Underactive Bladder: A Systematic Review of Preclinical and Clinical Studies

CONTEXT

Detrusor underactivity (DUA) is a common but relatively under-researched bladder dysfunction. Underactive bladder (UAB) is the symptom-based correlate of DUA. Recently, there has been renewed interest in this topic.

OBJECTIVE

To systematically review and summarise the most recent literature and discuss this in the context of what is already known.

EVIDENCE ACQUISITION

A systematic review of the literature was performed in December 2017 using Medline and Scopus databases. Separate searches of each database used a complex search strategy including "free text" protocols. Search terms included "underactive bladder", "detrusor underactivity", "acontractile bladder", "detrusor failure", "detrusor areflexia", "atonic bladder", "chronic retention", and "impaired bladder contractility".

EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS

The initial search retrieved a total of 1690 studies; of these 44 were included in the final analyses.

CONCLUSIONS

Although there has been an expansion in the literature concerning all aspects of DUA and UAB, knowledge on its epidemiology and aetiopathogenesis is still lacking; there remains a need to develop accurate reproducible diagnostic criteria and effective treatments, in particular drug therapies.

PATIENT SUMMARY

Recently, there has been renewed interest in underactive bladder with expanding research in this area. The lack of simple, reproducible, noninvasive diagnostic criteria has precluded an accurate estimation of the magnitude of the problem. Recent studies have highlighted the potential role of impaired bladder blood supply in causing bladder underactivity.

Suppression of Oxidative Stress of Modified Gongjin-Dan (WSY-1075) in Detrusor Underactivity Rat Model Bladder Outlet Induced by Obstruction

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the anti-oxidative stress and preventive effect of modified Gongjin-dan (WSY-1075) in a detrusor underactivity rat model.

METHODS

Rats were randomly allocated to three groups: shamoperated (control), bladder outlet obstruction-induced detrusor underactivity (BOO-DU), and BOO-DU with WSY-1075 (WSY) groups. WSY-1075 was orally administrated to rats 200 mg daily for 2 weeks prior to the operation and 4 weeks after the operation. Bladder outlet obstruction was surgically induced in rats by ligation around the urethra avoiding total obstruction. Cystometrography was conducted on rats in each group for examination of bladders.

RESULTS

Compared with the control group, bladder outlet obstruction led to a significant increase in oxidative stress with consequent changes to molecular composition, and decrease in maximal detrusor pressure (P<0.05). WSY-1075 treatment significantly suppressed oxidative stress and prevented degenerative and dysfunctional changes in bladder, as compared with BOO-DU group (P<0.05).

CONCLUSION

WSY-1075 had beneficial effect on prevention of BOO-DU.

Pathophysiology of the underactive bladder

Underactive bladder (UAB), which has been described as a symptom complex suggestive of detrusor underactivity, is usually characterized by prolonged urination time with or without a sensation of incomplete bladder emptying, usually with hesitancy, reduced sensation on filling, and slow stream often with storage symptoms. Several causes such as aging, bladder outlet obstruction, diabetes mellitus, neurologic disorders, and nervous injury to the spinal cord, cauda equine, and peripheral pelvic nerve have been assumed to be responsible for the development of UAB. Several contributing factors have been suggested in the pathophysiology of UAB, including myogenic failure, efferent and/or afferent dysfunctions, and central nervous system dysfunction. In this review article, we have described relationships between individual contributing factors and the pathophysiology of UAB based on previous reports. However, many pathophysiological uncertainties still remain, which require more investigations using appropriate animal models.

Mitochondrial stress and activation of PI3K and Akt survival pathway in bladder ischemia

PURPOSE

Detrusor overactivity contributes to bothersome constellation of lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) in men and women as they age. However, the underlying mechanisms of non-obstructive detrusor overactivity and LUTS remain largely unknown. Growing evidence suggests that ischemia may be an independent factor in the development of non-obstructive bladder dysfunction. Our goal was to determine the effects of ischemia on detrusor function and voiding behavior and define redox-mediated cellular stress and cell survival signaling in the ischemic bladder.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Male Sprague Dawley rats were randomly divided into treatment (n=8) and control (n=8) groups. In the treatment group, iliac artery atherosclerosis and chronic bladder ischemia were induced. At 8 weeks after bladder ischemia, voiding patterns were examined in metabolic cages, cystometrograms were recorded in conscious animals, and then bladder blood flow was measured under general anesthesia. Bladder tissues were processed for assessment of transcription factors, markers of cellular and mitochondrial stress, mitochondrial respiration, and cell survival signaling pathway.

RESULTS

Atherosclerotic occlusive disease spread from the common iliac arteries to the internal iliac and vesical arteries and produced sustained bladder ischemia. Studies in metabolic cages showed increased micturition frequency and decreased voided volume in bladder ischemia. Conscious cystometrograms produced consistent data showing significant increase in micturition frequency and decreased voided volume and bladder capacity. Voiding behavior and cystometric changes in bladder ischemia were associated with significant decrease in DNA binding activity of Nrf2, significant increase in cellular levels of stress protein Hsp70 and mitochondrial stress protein GRP75, and significant decrease in mitochondrial oxygen consumption and upregulation of PI3K and Akt expression.

CONCLUSION

Chronic bladder ischemia may be a mediating variable in the development of detrusor overactivity in the non-obstructive bladder. The mechanism may involve ischemia-induced cellular stress, Nrf2 functional deficit, depression of mitochondrial respiration, and upregulation of PI3K/Akt cell survival signaling pathway.

The link between vascular dysfunction, bladder ischemia, and aging bladder dysfunction

The vascular supply to the human bladder is derived mainly from the superior and inferior vesical arteries, the latter being directly connected to the internal iliac artery. Aging is associated with an impairment of blood vessel function and changes may occur in the vasculature at the molecular, cellular and functional level. Pelvic arterial insufficiency may play an important role in the development of bladder dysfunctions such as detrusor overactivity (DO) and the overactive bladder syndrome. Chronic ischemia-related bladder dysfunction may progress to bladder underactivity and it would be desirable to treat not only lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) induced by chronic ischemia, but also the progression of the morphological bladder changes. Studies in experimental models in rabbits and rats have shown that pelvic arterial insufficiency may result in significant bladder ischemia with reduced bladder wall oxygen tension. In turn, this will lead to oxidative stress associated with upregulation of oxidative stress-sensitive genes, increased muscarinic receptor activity, ultrastructural damage, and neurodegeneration. The phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5) inhibitor tadalafil, the α₁-adrenoceptor (AR) blocker silodosin, the β₃-AR agonist mirabegron, and the free radical scavenger melatonin, exerted a protecting effect on urodynamic parameters, and on functional and morphological changes of the bladder demonstrable in vitro. Since the agents tested are used clinically for relieving LUTS, the results from the animal models seem to have translational value, and may be of relevance for designing clinical studies to demonstrate if the drugs may prevent progression of ischemia-related functional and morphological bladder changes.