Epigenetic Regulation of Tissue-Type Plasminogen Activator in Human Brain Tissue and Brain-Derived Cells

Poly (ADP-ribose) Polymerase-1 modulations in the genesis of thrombosis

Thrombosis, a coagulation disorder, occurs due to altered levels of coagulation, fibrinolytic and immune factors, which are otherwise known to maintain hemostasis in normal physiological conditions. Here, we review the direct and indirect participation of a multifunctional nuclear enzyme poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP1) in the expression of key genes and cellular processes involved in thrombotic pathogenesis. PARP1 biological activities range from maintenance of genomic integrity, chromatin remodeling, base excision DNA repair, stress responses to cell death, angiogenesis and cell cycle pathways. However, under homeostatic imbalances, PARP1 activities are linked with the pathogenesis of diseases, including cancer, aging, neurological disorders, and cardiovascular diseases. Disease-associated distressed cells employ a variety of PARP-1 functions such as oxidative damage exacerbations, cellular energetics and apoptosis pathways, regulation of inflammatory mediators, promotion of endothelial dysfunction, and ERK-mediated signaling in pathogenesis. Thrombosis is one such pathogenesis that comprises exacerbation of coagulation cascade due to biochemical alterations in endothelial cells, platelet activation, overexpression of adhesion molecules, cytokines release, and leukocyte adherence. Thus, the activation of endothelial and inflammatory cells in thrombosis implicates a potential role of PARP1 activation in thrombogenesis. This review article explores the direct impact of PARP1 activation in the etiology of thrombosis and discusses PARP1-mediated endothelial dysfunction, inflammation, and epigenetic regulations in the disease manifestation. Understanding PARP1 functions associated with thrombosis may elucidate novel pathogenetic mechanisms and help in better disease management through newer therapeutic interventions targeting PARP1 activity.

Understanding current experimental models of glioblastoma-brain microenvironment interactions

Glioblastoma (GBM) is a common and devastating primary brain tumor, with median survival of 16-18 months after diagnosis in the setting of substantial resistance to standard-of-care and inevitable tumor recurrence. Recent work has implicated the brain microenvironment as being critical for GBM proliferation, invasion, and resistance to treatment. GBM does not operate in isolation, with neurons, astrocytes, and multiple immune populations being implicated in GBM tumor progression and invasiveness. The goal of this review article is to provide an overview of the available in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo experimental models for assessing GBM-brain interactions, as well as discuss each model's relative strengths and limitations. Current in vitro models discussed will include 2D and 3D co-culture platforms with various cells of the brain microenvironment, as well as spheroids, whole organoids, and models of fluid dynamics, such as interstitial flow. An overview of in vitro and ex vivo organotypic GBM brain slices is also provided. Finally, we conclude with a discussion of the various in vivo rodent models of GBM, including xenografts, syngeneic grafts, and genetically-engineered models of GBM.

Effect of Regulatory Element DNA Methylation on Tissue-Type Plasminogen Activator Gene Expression

Expression of the tissue-type plasminogen activator gene (t-PA; gene name PLAT) is regulated, in part, by epigenetic mechanisms. We investigated the relationship between PLAT methylation and PLAT expression in five primary human cell types and six transformed cell lines. CpG methylation was analyzed in the proximal PLAT gene promoter and near the multihormone responsive enhancer (MHRE) -7.3 kilobase pairs upstream of the PLAT transcriptional start site (TSS, -7.3 kb). In Bowes melanoma cells, the PLAT promoter and the MHRE were fully unmethylated and t-PA secretion was extremely high. In other cell types the region from -647 to -366 was fully methylated, whereas an unmethylated stretch of DNA from -121 to +94 was required but not sufficient for detectable t-PA mRNA and t-PA secretion. DNA methylation near the MHRE was not correlated with t-PA secretion. Specific methylation of the PLAT promoter region -151 to +151, inserted into a firefly luciferase reporter gene, abolished reporter gene activity. The region -121 to + 94 contains two well-described regulatory elements, a PMA-responsive element (CRE) near -106 and a GC-rich region containing an Sp1 binding site near +59. Methylation of double-stranded DNA oligonucleotides containing the CRE or the GC-rich region had little or no effect on transcription factor binding. Methylated CpGs may attract co-repressor complexes that contain histone deacetylases (HDAC). However, reporter gene activity of methylated plasmids was not restored by the HDAC inhibitor trichostatin. In conclusion, efficient PLAT gene expression requires a short stretch of unmethylated CpG sites in the proximal promoter.