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Phongroop K, Rattanasrisomporn J, Piewbang C, Tangtrongsup S, Rungsipipat A, Techangamsuwan S. Molecular epidemiology and strain diversity of circulating feline Calicivirus in Thai cats. Front Vet Sci 2024; 11:1377327. [PMID: 38887538 PMCID: PMC11180889 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2024.1377327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2024] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a significant viral pathogen causing upper respiratory tract and oral diseases in cats. The emergence of the virulent systemic FCV variant (VS-FCV) has raised global concern in the past decade. This study aims to explore the epidemiology, genetic characterization, and diversity of FCV strains circulating among Thai cats. Various sample types, including nasal, oral, and oropharyngeal swabs and fresh tissues, were collected from 184 cats across different regions of Thailand from 2016 to 2021. Using reverse transcription real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), FCV infection was investigated, with additional screening for feline herpesvirus-1 (FHV-1) by qPCR. The detection rates for FCV, FHV-1, and co-infection were 46.7, 65.8, and 31.5%, respectively. Significantly, the odds ratio (OR) revealed a strong association between the detection of a single FCV and the presence of gingivostomatitis lesions (OR: 7.15, 95% CI: 1.89-26.99, p = 0.004). In addition, FCV detection is notably less likely in vaccinated cats (OR: 0.22, 95% CI: 0.07-0.75, p = 0.015). Amino acid sequence analysis based on the VP1 major capsid protein gene of the 14 FCV-Thai (FCV-TH) strains revealed genetic diversity compared to the other 43 global strains (0 to 86.6%). Intriguingly, a vaccine-like FCV variant was detected in one cat. In summary, this study provides insights into the epidemiology and molecular characteristics of FCV diversity within the Thai cat population for the first time. The identification of unique physicochemical characteristics in the capsid hypervariable region of some FCV-TH strains challenges previous hypotheses. Therefore, further exploration of vaccine-like FCV variants is crucial for a comprehensive understanding and to improve viral prevention and control strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kannika Phongroop
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Animal Virome and Diagnostic Development Research Unit, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Jatuporn Rattanasrisomporn
- Companion Animal Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Chutchai Piewbang
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Animal Virome and Diagnostic Development Research Unit, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | | | - Anudep Rungsipipat
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Somporn Techangamsuwan
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Animal Virome and Diagnostic Development Research Unit, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
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CHEN LH, CHEN YW, LEE F, HSU WL, OU SC. Identification and genomic characterization of feline calicivirus from a leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis) in Taiwan. J Vet Med Sci 2024; 86:660-664. [PMID: 38644183 PMCID: PMC11187598 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.23-0522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/23/2024] Open
Abstract
The leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis) is an endangered wildlife that is protected under Taiwan's regulations. The body of a road-killed leopard cat was found to contain sequences of feline calicivirus (FCV), designated W109-1443. Analysis of the complete genomic sequence revealed that it shared approximately 81% similarity with a Chinese strain of FCV found in a domestic cat. Phylogenetic analysis of the VP1 gene indicated that the W109-1443 isolate belonged to genogroup II. Recombination analysis revealed that the W109-1443 isolate may have resulted from recombination between two FCV strains. Given the potential impact of FCV on the health and survival of wild felids, further investigation is necessary to assess its pathogenicity in the leopard cat population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Hsuan CHEN
- Graduate Institute of Microbiology and Public Health,
National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
- Veterinary Research Institute, Ministry of Agriculture, New
Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Yen-Wen CHEN
- Veterinary Research Institute, Ministry of Agriculture, New
Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Fan LEE
- Veterinary Research Institute, Ministry of Agriculture, New
Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Li HSU
- Graduate Institute of Microbiology and Public Health,
National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Shan-Chia OU
- Graduate Institute of Microbiology and Public Health,
National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
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Yang Y, Liu Z, Chen M, Feng K, Qi R, Zheng Y, Wang Y, Kang H, Jiang Q, Yang M, Qu L, Liu J. Classification of genotypes based on the VP1 gene of feline calicivirus and study of cross-protection between different genotypes. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1226877. [PMID: 37614595 PMCID: PMC10442547 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1226877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Feline calicivirus (FCV) causes upper respiratory tract diseases and even death in cats, thereby acting as a great threat to feline animals. Currently, FCV prevention is mainly achieved through vaccination, but the effectiveness of vaccination is limited. In this study, 105 FCV strain VP1 sequences with clear backgrounds were downloaded from the NCBI and subjected to a maximum likelihood method for systematic evolutionary analysis. Based on the genetic analysis results, FCV-positive sera were prepared using SPF mice and Chinese field cats as target animals, followed by a cross-neutralization assay conducted on the different genotype strains and in vivo challenge tests were carried out to further verify with the strain with best cross-protection effect. The results revealed that FCV was mainly divided into two genotypes: GI and GII. The GI genotype strains are prevalent worldwide, but all GII genotype strains were isolated from Asia, indicating a clear geographical feature. This may form resistance to FCV prevention in Asia. The in vitro neutralization assay conducted using murine serum demonstrated that the cross-protection effect varied among strains. A strain with broad-spectrum neutralization properties, DL39, was screened. This strain could produce neutralizing titers (10 × 23.08-10 × 20.25) against all strains used in this study. The antibody titers against the GI strains were 10 × 23.08-10 × 20.5 and those against the GII strains were 10 × 20.75-10 × 20.25. Preliminary evidence suggested that the antibody titer of the DL39 strain against GI was higher than that against GII. Subsequent cross-neutralization assays with cat serum prepared with the DL39 strain and each strain simultaneously yielded results similar to those described above. In vivo challenge tests revealed that the DL39 strain-immunized cats outperformed the positive controls in all measures. The results of several trials demonstrated that strain DL39 can potentially be used as a vaccine strain. The study attempted to combine the genetic diversity and phylogenetic analysis of FCV with the discovery of potential vaccines, which is crucial for developing highly effective FCV vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yupeng Yang
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Zhe Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Mengru Chen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Kexin Feng
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Ruibin Qi
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Yating Zheng
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Ying Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Hongtao Kang
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Qian Jiang
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Mingfa Yang
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Liandong Qu
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Jiasen Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
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Cao L, Li Q, Shi K, Wei L, Ouyang H, Ye Z, Du W, Ye J, Hui X, Li J, Cao S, Zhou D. Isolation and phylogenetic analysis of feline calicivirus strains from various region of China. ANIMAL DISEASES 2022. [DOI: 10.1186/s44149-022-00047-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractFeline calicivirus (FCV) is an important feline pathogen mainly causing upper respiratory tract disease, conjunctivitis, and stomatitis, and it is classified into genotype I and genotype II. To investigate the prevalence and molecular characteristics of FCV, this study collected 337 cat swab samples from animal hospitals in different regions of China from 2019 to 2021. The positive detection rate of FCV was 29.9% (101/337) by RT-PCR. Statistical analysis showed that FCV prevalence was significantly associated with living environment (p = 0.0004), age (p = 0.031) and clinical symptoms (p = 0.00), but not with sex (p = 0.092) and breed (p = 0.171). The 26 strains of FCV were isolated using F81 cells. Phylogenetic analysis showed that 10 isolates belonged to genotype I, and 16 isolates belonged to genotype II. These 26 isolates were highly genetically diverse, of which HB7 isolate had three same virulence-related amino acid loci with VSD strains. Potential loci distinguishing different genotypes were identified from 26 isolates, suggesting the genetic relationship between different genotypes. In addition, selection pressure analysis based on capsid protein of 26 isolates revealed that the protein is under diversifying selection. This study reveals the genetic diversity of FCV and provides a reference for the screening of vaccine candidate strains and the development of vaccines with better cross-protection effects.
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Mao J, Ye S, Li Q, Bai Y, Wu J, Xu L, Wang Z, Wang J, Zhou P, Li S. Molecular Characterization and Phylogenetic Analysis of Feline Calicivirus Isolated in Guangdong Province, China from 2018 to 2022. Viruses 2022; 14:v14112421. [PMID: 36366519 PMCID: PMC9696216 DOI: 10.3390/v14112421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Revised: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a common feline infectious pathogen that mainly causes upper respiratory tract disease. To investigate the prevalence of FCV in Guangdong Province in China, a total of 152 nasal and throat swabs from cats suspected of FCV infection were collected in veterinary clinics or shelters from 2018 to 2022. The positive detection rate of FCV was 28.9% (44/152) by RT-PCR. In addition, twenty FCV isolates were successfully isolated and purified. Eleven out of twenty isolates were selected for further phylogenetic analyses based on the capsid protein VP1; our results revealed that seven isolates were in genogroup I, and four were in genogroup II. Notably, according to the whole genome phylogenetic tree, FCV-SCAU-11 was in the same branch as Korean isolates, and recombination analysis revealed that the FCV-SCAU-11 isolate showed potential recombinant events between the FCV-SH isolate and FCV-GXNN03-20 isolate. Furthermore, the virus replication kinetics indicated that FCV-SCAU-10, with clinically severe symptoms in patient cats, performed a more efficient replication in vitro. In conclusion, this study revealed the genetic diversity of FCVs in Guangdong Province, providing a reference for novel vaccine candidate strains and the development of effective strategies for preventing FCV infection in cats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianwei Mao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control for Severe Clinical Animal Diseases, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Technological Engineering Research Center for Pet, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Shaotang Ye
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control for Severe Clinical Animal Diseases, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Technological Engineering Research Center for Pet, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Qi Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control for Severe Clinical Animal Diseases, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Technological Engineering Research Center for Pet, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Yumeizi Bai
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control for Severe Clinical Animal Diseases, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Technological Engineering Research Center for Pet, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Jieyan Wu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control for Severe Clinical Animal Diseases, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Technological Engineering Research Center for Pet, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Liang Xu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control for Severe Clinical Animal Diseases, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Technological Engineering Research Center for Pet, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Zhen Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control for Severe Clinical Animal Diseases, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Technological Engineering Research Center for Pet, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Jingyu Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control for Severe Clinical Animal Diseases, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Technological Engineering Research Center for Pet, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Pei Zhou
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control for Severe Clinical Animal Diseases, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Technological Engineering Research Center for Pet, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Correspondence: (P.Z.); (S.L.); Tel.: +86-13826481597 (P.Z.); +86-13503030878 (S.L.)
| | - Shoujun Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control for Severe Clinical Animal Diseases, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Technological Engineering Research Center for Pet, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Correspondence: (P.Z.); (S.L.); Tel.: +86-13826481597 (P.Z.); +86-13503030878 (S.L.)
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Komina A, Krasnikov N, Kucheruk O, Zhukova E, Yuzhakov A, Gulyukin A. Distribution and genetic diversity of Feline calicivirus in Moscow metropolitan area. J Vet Sci 2022; 23:e92. [PMID: 36448438 PMCID: PMC9715382 DOI: 10.4142/jvs.22182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Revised: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Feline calicivirus (FCV) is widespread throughout the world. An FCV infection is associated with conjunctivitis, rhinitis, and mouth ulcers that can lead to the animal's death. Because vaccination is not always effective, it is necessary to monitor the infection regularly. OBJECTIVES This study examined the FCV epizootic situation in the Moscow metropolitan area by conducting a molecular phylogenetic analysis of the virus isolates. METHODS Samples from 6213 animals were examined by a reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. For phylogenetic analysis, 12 nucleotide sequences obtained from animal samples were selected. Sequencing was performed using the Sanger method. Phylogenetic analysis was conducted using the Maximum Likelihood method. RESULTS The FCV genome was detected in 1,596 (25.7%) samples out of 6,213. In 2018, calicivirus was detected in 18.9% of samples, 27.8% in 2019, 21.4% in 2020, and 32.6% in 2021. Phylogenetic analysis of the F ORF2 region and the ORF3 start region led to division into two FCV genogroups. Most of the isolates (8 out of 12) were close to the Chinese strains. On the other hand, there were isolates closely related to European and American strains. The isolates circulating in Moscow were not included in clusters with vaccine strains; their nucleotide similarity varied from 77% to 83%. CONCLUSIONS This study revealed a high prevalence and genetic diversity of the FCV in Moscow. The epizootic situation remains stably tense because 24 viruses were detected in 25% of animals annually.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alina Komina
- Federal State Budget Scientific Institution “Federal Scientific Centre VIEV” (FSC VIEV), Moscow 109428, Russia
| | - Nikita Krasnikov
- Federal State Budget Scientific Institution “Federal Scientific Centre VIEV” (FSC VIEV), Moscow 109428, Russia
| | - Oksana Kucheruk
- Federal State Budget Scientific Institution “Federal Scientific Centre VIEV” (FSC VIEV), Moscow 109428, Russia
| | - Elena Zhukova
- Federal State Budget Scientific Institution “Federal Scientific Centre VIEV” (FSC VIEV), Moscow 109428, Russia
| | - Anton Yuzhakov
- Federal State Budget Scientific Institution “Federal Scientific Centre VIEV” (FSC VIEV), Moscow 109428, Russia
| | - Alexey Gulyukin
- Federal State Budget Scientific Institution “Federal Scientific Centre VIEV” (FSC VIEV), Moscow 109428, Russia
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Hofmann-Lehmann R, Hosie MJ, Hartmann K, Egberink H, Truyen U, Tasker S, Belák S, Boucraut-Baralon C, Frymus T, Lloret A, Marsilio F, Pennisi MG, Addie DD, Lutz H, Thiry E, Radford AD, Möstl K. Calicivirus Infection in Cats. Viruses 2022; 14:937. [PMID: 35632680 PMCID: PMC9145992 DOI: 10.3390/v14050937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Revised: 04/24/2022] [Accepted: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a common pathogen in domestic cats that is highly contagious, resistant to many disinfectants and demonstrates a high genetic variability. FCV infection can lead to serious or even fatal diseases. In this review, the European Advisory Board on Cat Diseases (ABCD), a scientifically independent board of experts in feline medicine from 11 European countries, presents the current knowledge of FCV infection and fills gaps with expert opinions. FCV infections are particularly problematic in multicat environments. FCV-infected cats often show painful erosions in the mouth and mild upper respiratory disease and, particularly in kittens, even fatal pneumonia. However, infection can be associated with chronic gingivostomatitis. Rarely, highly virulent FCV variants can induce severe systemic disease with epizootic spread and high mortality. FCV can best be detected by reverse-transcriptase PCR. However, a negative result does not rule out FCV infection and healthy cats can test positive. All cats should be vaccinated against FCV (core vaccine); however, vaccination protects cats from disease but not from infection. Considering the high variability of FCV, changing to different vaccine strain(s) may be of benefit if disease occurs in fully vaccinated cats. Infection-induced immunity is not life-long and does not protect against all strains; therefore, vaccination of cats that have recovered from caliciviral disease is recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Regina Hofmann-Lehmann
- Clinical Laboratory, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland;
| | - Margaret J. Hosie
- MRC—University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK;
| | - Katrin Hartmann
- Clinic of Small Animal Medicine, Centre for Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, 80539 Munich, Germany;
| | - Herman Egberink
- Department of Biomolecular Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Utrecht, 3584 CL Utrecht, The Netherlands;
| | - Uwe Truyen
- Institute of Animal Hygiene and Veterinary Public Health, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany;
| | - Séverine Tasker
- Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Bristol BS40 5DU, UK;
- Linnaeus Veterinary Limited, Shirley, Solihull B90 4BN, UK
| | - Sándor Belák
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health (BVF), Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), P.O. Box 7036, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden;
| | | | - Tadeusz Frymus
- Department of Small Animal Diseases with Clinic, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences—SGGW, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Albert Lloret
- Fundació Hospital Clínic Veterinari, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain;
| | - Fulvio Marsilio
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Università degli Studi di Teramo, 64100 Teramo, Italy;
| | - Maria Grazia Pennisi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Veterinarie, Università di Messina, 98168 Messina, Italy;
| | - Diane D. Addie
- Veterinary Diagnostic Services, School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK;
| | - Hans Lutz
- Clinical Laboratory, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland;
| | - Etienne Thiry
- Veterinary Virology and Animal Viral Diseases, Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health Research Centre, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Liège University, B-4000 Liège, Belgium;
| | - Alan D. Radford
- Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Chester High Road, Neston CH64 7TE, UK;
| | - Karin Möstl
- Institute of Virology, Department for Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1210 Vienna, Austria;
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