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Zhou J, Zhang L, Liu S, DeRubeis D, Zhang D. Toll-like receptors in breast cancer immunity and immunotherapy. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1418025. [PMID: 38903515 PMCID: PMC11187004 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1418025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2024] [Accepted: 05/23/2024] [Indexed: 06/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a key family of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) in the innate immune system. The activation of TLRs will not only prevent pathogen infection but also respond to damage-induced danger signaling. Increasing evidence suggests that TLRs play a critical role in breast cancer development and treatment. However, the activation of TLRs is a double-edged sword that can induce either pro-tumor activity or anti-tumor effect. The underlying mechanisms of these opposite effects of TLR signaling in cancer are not fully understood. Targeting TLRs is a promising strategy for improving breast cancer treatment, either as monotherapies or by improving other current therapies. Here we provide an update on the role of TLRs in breast cancer immunity and immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Zhou
- Center for Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M University, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Lin Zhang
- Center for Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M University, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Siyao Liu
- Center for Translational Cancer Research, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M University, Houston, TX, United States
| | - David DeRubeis
- Center for Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M University, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Dekai Zhang
- Center for Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M University, Houston, TX, United States
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Moaz I, Fouad FA, Elmasry H, Tarek G, Elzoheiry A, Elgamal M, Ibrahim R, Hisham Y, Safwat G, Kamel MM, El-Batal HM, Fouda M. Associations Between Serum Soluble Toll-like Receptors 4 and 9 and Breast Cancer in Egyptian Patients. Cancer Control 2023; 30:10732748231204755. [PMID: 37771087 PMCID: PMC10541740 DOI: 10.1177/10732748231204755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2023] [Revised: 08/21/2023] [Accepted: 09/06/2023] [Indexed: 09/30/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play an important role in regulation of immune cells and are vital in tumorigenesis due to its crucial role in inflammatory microenvironment regulation, as they promote the synthesis and release of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. Toll-like receptors 4 and TLRs 9 were found to be highly expressed in breast cancer. The aim of this study is to investigate the soluble toll-like receptors 4 and 9 (sTLR4 and sTLR9) as potential biomarkers for diagnosis and prognosis of breast cancer and their association with the clinicopathological parameters of breast cancer. PATIENTS AND METHOD In this retrospective case-control study, 186 female subjects were recruited and divided into three groups, Group I: 62 healthy control, Group II: 62 subjects diagnosed with non-metastatic breast cancer, and Group III: 62 subjects diagnosed with metastatic breast cancer. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) technique was used to quantify the levels of sTLR4 and sTLR9 in serum. RESULTS Both non-metastatic and metastatic groups showed significant higher levels of both serum sTLR4 and sTLR9 expression compared to healthy controls. Only sTLR9 was significantly increased among metastatic patients compared to non-metastatic group. Serum levels of sTLR9 and sTLR4 were still significantly associated with breast cancer in a multiple logistic regression model (P = <.001). ROC curves showed that both sTLR4 and sTLR9 can be a significant parameter to discriminate between normal females and breast cancer patients. CONCLUSION Soluble toll-like receptors 4 and sTLR9 are over-expressed in patients with metastatic and non-metastatic BC than in benign cases. The expression levels of sTLR4 and TLR9 have clinical interest as indicators of tumor aggressiveness suggested to be prognostic biomarkers. Toll-like receptors may represent therapeutic targets in breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inas Moaz
- National Liver Institute, Menoufia University, Menoufia, Egypt
| | - Fayrouz A. Fouad
- Baheya Centre for Early Detection and Treatment of Breast Cancer, Giza, Egypt
- Ancient DNA Lab, National Museum of Egyptian Civilization (NMEC), Cairo, Egypt
| | - Hossam Elmasry
- Baheya Centre for Early Detection and Treatment of Breast Cancer, Giza, Egypt
| | - Gehad Tarek
- Faculty of Biotechnology, October University for Modern Sciences and Arts (MSA), Giza, Egypt
| | - Aya Elzoheiry
- Faculty of Biotechnology, October University for Modern Sciences and Arts (MSA), Giza, Egypt
| | - Manar Elgamal
- Faculty of Biotechnology, October University for Modern Sciences and Arts (MSA), Giza, Egypt
| | - Randa Ibrahim
- Faculty of Biotechnology, October University for Modern Sciences and Arts (MSA), Giza, Egypt
| | - Yasmin Hisham
- Faculty of Biotechnology, October University for Modern Sciences and Arts (MSA), Giza, Egypt
| | - Gehan Safwat
- Faculty of Biotechnology, October University for Modern Sciences and Arts (MSA), Giza, Egypt
| | - Mahmoud M. Kamel
- Department of Clinical Pathology, National Cancer Institute, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Heba M. El-Batal
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Merhan Fouda
- Department of Clinical Pathology, National Cancer Institute, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
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Toroghian Y, Khayyami R, Hassanian SM, Nassiri M, Ferns GA, Khazaei M, Avan A. The therapeutic potential of targeting Toll like receptor pathway in breast cancer. Curr Pharm Des 2022; 28:2203-2210. [PMID: 35909287 DOI: 10.2174/1381612828666220728154012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2022] [Accepted: 05/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling pathway plays a key role in inducing immune responses and were shown to be expressed in immune cells and tumor cells, and is involved in the progression of several malignancies including breast cancer. These findings provide a proof of the concept of targeting this pathway as a potential therapeutic option in the treatment of breast cancer. Moreover, there is a growing body of data showing the activation of TLRs in the tumor microenvironment and its dual function as anti-tumoral (dendritic T and natural killer cells activation) or pro-tumoral activity (cell proliferation, and drug resistance). Several agents have been developed for targeting of this pathway and one of these inhibitors, called Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (an agonist of TLR2 and TLR4), is recently being approved by FDA for immunotherapy of bladder cancer. This review summarizes the current knowledge of the mechanisms of action of TLR pathways in the development/progression of cancer for a better management of this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Younes Toroghian
- Metabolic syndrome Research center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Reza Khayyami
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Seyed Mahdi Hassanian
- Basic Sciences Research Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Mohammadreza Nassiri
- Recombinant Proteins Research Group, The Research Institute of Biotechnology, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Gordon A Ferns
- Brighton & Sussex Medical School, Division of Medical Education, Falmer, Brighton, Sussex BN1 9PH, UK
| | - Majid Khazaei
- Metabolic syndrome Research center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.,Basic Sciences Research Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Amir Avan
- Metabolic syndrome Research center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.,Basic Sciences Research Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.,Medical Genetics Research center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
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Chrétien S, Zerdes I, Bergh J, Matikas A, Foukakis T. Beyond PD-1/PD-L1 Inhibition: What the Future Holds for Breast Cancer Immunotherapy. Cancers (Basel) 2019; 11:E628. [PMID: 31060337 PMCID: PMC6562626 DOI: 10.3390/cancers11050628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2019] [Revised: 05/01/2019] [Accepted: 05/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer immunotherapy has altered the management of human malignancies, improving outcomes in an expanding list of diseases. Breast cancer - presumably due to its perceived low immunogenicity - is a late addition to this list. Furthermore, most of the focus has been on the triple negative subtype because of its higher tumor mutational load and lymphocyte-enriched stroma, although emerging data show promise on the other breast cancer subtypes as well. To this point the clinical use of immunotherapy is limited to the inhibition of two immune checkpoints, Programmed Cell Death Protein 1 (PD-1) and Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated Protein 4 (CTLA-4). Consistent with the complexity of the regulation of the tumor - host interactions and their lack of reliance on a single regulatory pathway, combinatory approaches have shown improved efficacy albeit at the cost of increased toxicity. Beyond those two checkpoints though, a large number of co-stimulatory or co-inhibitory molecules play major roles on tumor evasion from immunosurveillance. These molecules likely represent future targets of immunotherapy provided that the promise shown in early data is translated into improved patient survival in randomized trials. The biological role, prognostic and predictive implications regarding breast cancer and early clinical efforts on exploiting these immune-related therapeutic targets are herein reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Chrétien
- Department of Oncology - Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, 171 76, Sweden.
| | - Ioannis Zerdes
- Department of Oncology - Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, 171 76, Sweden.
| | - Jonas Bergh
- Department of Oncology - Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, 171 76, Sweden.
| | - Alexios Matikas
- Department of Oncology - Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, 171 76, Sweden.
| | - Theodoros Foukakis
- Department of Oncology - Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, 171 76, Sweden.
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Yuan Y, Zhao L, Ye Z, Ma H, Wang X, Jiang Z. Association of toll-like receptor 9 expression with prognosis of systemic lupus erythematosus. Exp Ther Med 2019; 17:3247-3254. [PMID: 30937000 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2019.7290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2016] [Accepted: 07/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
The current study assessed the association between toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and subsequently determined the predictive value of TLR9 in assessing the prognosis of SLE. A total of 90 newly diagnosed patients with SLE and 49 healthy control subjects were enrolled in the current study. The expression of TLR9 mRNA was measured in whole blood samples from patients and controls. All patients were followed up for ≥2 years and their clinical parameters were recorded. After 2 years, 30 patients were randomly chosen from patient subgroups with high (n=20) or low (n=10) TLR9 levels and the expression of TLR9 mRNA were measured again. Cox proportional hazards regression was used to identify the risk factors of SLE prognosis. Patients with SLE and high SLE disease activity exhibited significantly increased TLR9 expression (P<0.05). Persistent proteinuria of >0.5 g/day [hazard ratio (HR), 6.314; 95% confidence interval (CI), 2.858-13.947], C-reactive protein levels (HR, 1.013; 95% CI, 1.007-1.019) and high-TLR9 mRNA expression (HR, 3.852; 95% CI, 1.931-7.684) were independent risk factors of poor prognosis during a 2-year follow-up period, whereas patient treatment with >1 immunosuppressant (HR, 0.374; 95% CI, 0.173-0.808) was a factor indicating favorable prognosis. Furthermore, the expression of TLR9 mRNA remained high in patients with poor prognosis at the end of a 2-year follow-up period but in patients with a favorable prognosis, TLR9 mRNA expression was significantly reduced compared with the levels measured at SLE onset (P<0.0001). Therefore, the expression of TLR9 mRNA in whole blood samples at SLE onset is associated with SLE disease activity and its expression may be used as an indicator of poor prognosis in patients with SLE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Yuan
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China.,Institute of Translational Medicine, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China
| | - Ling Zhao
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China
| | - Zhuang Ye
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China
| | - Hongshuang Ma
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China
| | - Xiaosong Wang
- Institute of Translational Medicine, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China
| | - Zhenyu Jiang
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China
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Niu Z, Tang W, Liu T, Xu P, Zhu D, Ji M, Huang W, Ren L, Wei Y, Xu J. Cell-free DNA derived from cancer cells facilitates tumor malignancy through Toll-like receptor 9 signaling-triggered interleukin-8 secretion in colorectal cancer. Acta Biochim Biophys Sin (Shanghai) 2018; 50:1007-1017. [PMID: 30239551 DOI: 10.1093/abbs/gmy104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Circulating cell-free DNA (cfDNA) has become a potential diagnostic and prognostic biomarker for colorectal cancer (CRC). In non-cancerous diseases, it has been confirmed that cfDNA can be recognized by Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9), leading to a significant biological change. Nevertheless, the biological significance of cfDNA and its relationship with TLR9 in tumor malignancy is still unclear. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to explore the biological role of cfDNA in colorectal cancer (CRC). The expression of TLR9 was measured in different CRC cell lines and cancerous samples by RT-PCR or immunohistochemistry, which showed that high expression of TLR9 was significantly correlated with the tumor metastasis, advanced TNM stage and poor prognosis of patients. Then, cfDNA was obtained from fluorouracil (5FU)-induced apoptotic cancer cells in vitro and transfection techniques were used to transfect siRNA and cDNA plasmid for TLR9. Cancer cells were stimulated using isolated cfDNA fragments, and results showed that cfDNA could promote colorectal cancer cell proliferation via TLR9. Meanwhile, we demonstrated that the cfDNA binding to TLR9 could facilitate cell migration and invasion. Finally, we demonstrated that cfDNA initiated downstream TLR9-MyD88 signaling and induced robust release of chemokine interleukin 8 (IL-8), which helped to elucidate the mechanisms underlying these phenomena. Our data suggest that cancer cell-derived cfDNA contributes to cancer progression through activation of TLR9-MyD88 signaling and IL-8 secretion in CRC. These findings provide a novel perspective for understanding of tumor progression and provoke a potential therapeutic target for CRC treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhengchuan Niu
- Department of General Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Wentao Tang
- Department of General Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Tianyu Liu
- Department of General Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Pingping Xu
- Department of General Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Dexiang Zhu
- Department of General Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Meiling Ji
- Department of General Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Wenbai Huang
- Department of General Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Li Ren
- Department of General Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Ye Wei
- Department of General Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jianmin Xu
- Department of General Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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Cant R, Dalgleish AG, Allen RL. Naltrexone Inhibits IL-6 and TNFα Production in Human Immune Cell Subsets following Stimulation with Ligands for Intracellular Toll-Like Receptors. Front Immunol 2017; 8:809. [PMID: 28744288 PMCID: PMC5504148 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2016] [Accepted: 06/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The opioid antagonist naltrexone hydrochloride has been suggested to be a potential therapy at low dosage for multiple inflammatory conditions and cancers. Little is known about the immune-modulating effects of naltrexone, but an effect on the activity of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) has been reported. We analyzed the effects of naltrexone hydrochloride on IL-6 secretion by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) in vitro following stimulation with ligands for TLR4 and for the intracellular receptors TLR7, TLR8, and TLR9. Naltrexone did not affect cell viability or induce apoptosis of PBMC. Intracellular staining demonstrated that naltrexone inhibited production of IL-6 and TNFα by monocyte and plasmacytoid dendritic cell subsets within the PBMC population following treatment with ligands for TLR7/8 and TLR9, respectively. No effect of cytokine production by PBMC following stimulation of TLR4 was observed. Additionally, naltrexone inhibited IL-6 production in isolated monocytes and B cells after TLR7/8 and TLR9 stimulation, respectively, but no effect on IL-6 production in isolated monocytes after TLR4 stimulation was observed. These findings indicate that naltrexone has the potential to modulate the secretion of inflammatory cytokines in response to intracellular TLR activity, supporting the hypothesis that it may have potential for use as an immunomodulator.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Cant
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Angus G Dalgleish
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Rachel L Allen
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, London, United Kingdom
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Xue D, Lu M, Gao B, Qiao X, Zhang Y. Screening for transcription factors and their regulatory small molecules involved in regulating the functions of CL1-5 cancer cells under the effects of macrophage-conditioned medium. Oncol Rep 2013; 31:1323-33. [PMID: 24366584 DOI: 10.3892/or.2013.2937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2013] [Accepted: 11/26/2013] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Many reports have inferred that macrophages can interact with tumor cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME) in a vicious cycle of tumor development; however, the changes in gene expression in tumor cells under the effects of macrophages are still largely unknown. The present study was carried out to illustrate the changes in the gene expression profile in lung cancer cells under the effects of macrophage-conditioned medium. Gene expression profile data were derived from the GEO database GSE9315. The GSM234968 sample was derived from a highly invasive human pulmonary adenocarcinoma cell line, CL1-5, and was treated with conditioned medium (supernatant of a culture solution of human monocyte THP-1). The GSM234967 sample that was not treated with the conditioned medium was used as a control. GO and KEGG enrichment analyses were carried out using DAVID software, and visualization networks were constructed using Cytoscape software. The results showed that 40 differentially expressed genes were annotated. Five differentially expressed transcription factors were identified, EIF2B4, EIF2B5, JUNB, GNG11 and HMGB2, which were all related to 'stress' and 'responses'. The gene cluster of JUNB was mainly enriched in cancer-related pathways, 'Wnt signaling pathway' and 'MAPK signaling pathway'. Finally, 10 small molecules, thioridazine, resveratrol, astemizole, ciclopirox, calmidazolium, etoposide, anisomycin, pyrvinium, azacyclonol and terfenadine, which may act on transcription factors, were identified using the CMap database. In conclusion, we identified transcription factors playing key roles in tumor cells under the effects of macrophages in order to provide new clues for blocking this vicious cycle of tumor development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongbo Xue
- Department of Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150001, P.R. China
| | - Ming Lu
- Department of Surgery, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Bo Gao
- Department of Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150001, P.R. China
| | - Xin Qiao
- Department of Surgery, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Yingmei Zhang
- Central Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150001, P.R. China
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quốc Lu’o’ng KV, Nguyễn LTH. The roles of beta-adrenergic receptors in tumorigenesis and the possible use of beta-adrenergic blockers for cancer treatment: possible genetic and cell-signaling mechanisms. Cancer Manag Res 2012; 4:431-45. [PMID: 23293538 PMCID: PMC3534394 DOI: 10.2147/cmar.s39153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer is the leading cause of death in the USA, and the incidence of cancer increases dramatically with age. Beta-adrenergic blockers appear to have a beneficial clinical effect in cancer patients. In this paper, we review the evidence of an association between β-adrenergic blockade and cancer. Genetic studies have provided the opportunity to determine which proteins link β-adrenergic blockade to cancer pathology. In particular, this link involves the major histocompatibility complex class II molecules, the renin-angiotensin system, transcription factor nuclear factor-kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells, poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1, vascular endothelial growth factor, and the reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase. Beta-adrenergic blockers also exert anticancer effects through non-genomic factors, including matrix metalloproteinase, mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways, prostaglandins, cyclooxygenase-2, oxidative stress, and nitric oxide synthase. In conclusion, β-adrenergic blockade may play a beneficial role in cancer treatment. Additional investigations that examine β-adrenergic blockers as cancer therapeutics are required to further elucidate this role.
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