Recent bionalytical methods for the determination of new psychoactive substances in biological specimens

Determination of Arylcyclohexylamines in Biological Specimens: Sensors and Sample Pre-Treatment Approaches

Arylcyclohexylamine (ACH) compounds represent a predominant faction within new psychoactive substances. Due to their powerful dissociative effects, they are used in recreational contexts but also in situations of drug-facilitated sexual assault, and therefore, they are a constant target of analysis by forensic experts. In recent years, their consumption has been notably high, especially the use of ketamine, presenting daily challenges for laboratories in the determination of this and other ACH analogues. This review comprises the recent strategies that forensic specialists use to identify and quantify ACH compounds in the laboratory with more traditional analytical techniques and technology, and on the point-of-care testing via sensor technology. The study focuses on analogues of phencyclidine (PCP), ketamine, and eticyclidine, highlighting the consistent need for higher sensitivity in the analysis of various samples collected from real cases and simulations of possible matrices. The review also emphasises the ongoing research to develop more sensitive, quicker, and more capable sensors.

Development and validation of the UPLC-MS method for simultaneous determination of six new psychoactive substances

The combined abuse of benzodiazepines and antipsychotics has become a global problem, and to develop a highly sensitive and selective method for monitoring of benzodiazepine hypnotics and antipsychotics is urgently necessary. In this work, we established a rapid method for the simultaneous determination of benzodiazepines (diazepam, alprazolam, triazolam, and estazolam) and antipsychotic drugs (clozapine, and chlorpromazine) based on ultra performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS). The accuracy, precision, limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ), specificity, matrix effect and carry-over effect were verified in detail. The results of the recovery and repeat experiments proved that the proposed UPLC-MS method possessed very satisfactory accuracy and precision. The LOD and LOQ of the six psychoactive substances were as low as 0.001-0.005 and 0.005-0.01 μg L-1, respectively. The proposed method was employed to analyze urine samples which were pretreated with a protein precipitation process. The potential influences of precipitants on the analysis results were evaluated statistically, and 0.1% formic acid/acetonitrile/water was selected as the optimum precipitation agent. The detection of the targets was free from matrix and carryover effects.

Evaluation of the In Vitro Wound-Healing Potential of Ayahuasca

Ayahuasca is an Amazonian drink, which contains β-carboline alkaloids and N,N-dimethyltryptamine. The aim of this study was to evaluate the healing potential of decoctions of a commercial mixture, four individual plants and four mixtures of two plants used in the ayahuasca preparation. Thus, the cytotoxic potential of the samples was evaluated and a wound-healing assay was performed with a NHDF cell line. Subsequently, a parallel artificial membrane permeability assay was also performed, to verify if any psychoactive compound could be absorbed by skin fibroblasts. The integrity and permeability of the cell layer were also evaluated, using the transepithelial electrical resistance assay and Lucifer yellow permeability assay, respectively. The compounds absorbed by the cell layer were quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to a diode array detector. The results showed that only one sample showed cytotoxicity and all the others promoted the migration of skin fibroblasts. Additionally, it was also verified that β-carbolynic alkaloids and N,N-dimethyltriptamine were not absorbed by the cell layer, and in general, did not interfere with its permeability and integrity. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study where ayahuasca's wound-healing potential was evaluated.

Biochip Array Technology for new psychoactive substances detection in biological samples: evaluation of the specificity of the Randox Evidence Investigator®

Background The need to detect new psychoactive substances in biological samples is of crucial interest. In this paper, the specificity of a benchtop immunoanalyzer commercialized by Randox was evaluated on real patient samples. Method The Evidence Investigator was assessed to screen for NPS on 80 serum and urine samples coming from patient admitted to the emergency department. Targeted NPS were included in various categories such as synthetic cannabinoids, opioids and benzodiazepines. Results were compared with a chromatographic technique coupled with mass spectrometry. Results No NPS was detected by the reference technique. Concerning immunoanalysis, some piperazines were positive, caused by the presence of medicine containing this chemical structure. Clonazepam and fentanyl derivatives were confirmed in some cases, but sometimes the positivity was explained by other opiates or benzodiazepines, which also explained 2 samples falsely positive for etizolam. Conclusions The Randox Evidence Investigator was rapid and easy to use. It can be used as a first intention but always followed by a more specific technique in order to detect false positive result.

An Update on the Implications of New Psychoactive Substances in Public Health

The emergence of new psychoactive substances has earned a great deal of attention, and several reports of acute poisoning and deaths have been issued involving, for instance, synthetic opiates. In recent years, there have been profound alterations in the legislation concerning consumption, marketing, and synthesis of these compounds; rapid alert systems have also been subject to changes, and new substances and new markets, mainly through the internet, have appeared. Their effects and how they originate in consumers are still mostly unknown, primarily in what concerns chronic toxicity. This review intends to provide a detailed description of these substances from the point of view of consumption, toxicokinetics, and health consequences, including case reports on intoxications in order to help researchers and public health agents working daily in this area.

Application of Homogeneous Liquid-Liquid Microextraction with Switchable Hydrophilicity Solvents to the Determination of MDMA, MDA and NBOMes in Postmortem Blood Samples

Synthetic drugs for recreational purposes are in constant evolution and their consumption promote a significant increase in intoxication cases, resulting in damaging public health. The development of analytical methodologies to confirm the consumption of illicit drugs in biological matrices are required for control of these substances. This work exploited the development of an extraction method based on homogenous liquid-liquid microextraction with switchable hydrophilicity solvent as extraction phase (SHS-HLLME) for the determination of the synthetic drugs MDMA, MDA and NBOMes (25B, 25C and 25I) in postmortem blood, followed by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry in tandem (LC-MS/MS). The optimized sample preparation conditions consisted of using 250 µL of ZnSO4 10% and 50 µL of NaOH 1 mol/L in the protein precipitation step; N,N-dimethylcyclohexylamine (DMCHA) was used as switchable hydrophilicity solvent (SHS), 650 μL of a mixture of SHS:HCl 6 mol/L (1:1 v/v), 500 μL of whole blood, 500 μL of NaOH 10 mol/L and 1 min of extraction time. The proposed method was validated, providing determination coefficients higher than 0.99 for all analytes; LOD and LOQ ranged from 0.1 to 10 ng/mL; intra-run precision from 2.16 to 9.19%; inter-run precision from 2.39 to 9.59%; bias from 93.57 to 115.71%; and matrix effects from 28.94 to 51.54%. The developed method was successfully applied to four authentic postmortem blood samples from synthetic drugs users, and it was found to be reliable with good selectivity.

Simultaneous LC-MS/MS screening for multiple phenethylamine-type conventional drugs and new psychoactive substances in urine

New psychoactive substances are being launched in the drug market at a rapidly growing pace. More than 950 new psychoactive substances have been reported to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. The development of new psychoactive substance abuse has drawn risks on public health and safety. Phenethylamines, along with other stimulants, accounted for the majority of the new psychoactive substances being reported in the past decade. This study presents a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method for the simultaneous screening of 74 conventional and artificial phenethylamines in urine samples. The chromatographic analysis was performed by a direct dilute-and-shoot procedure using a Phenomenex Kinetex® Phenyl-Hexyl column (10 cm × 2.1 mm i.d., 1.7 µm) and two mobile phases (A: 0.1% formic acid aqueous solution with 5 mM ammonium acetate, B: 0.1% formic acid methanolic solution). The mass fragments were collected under the multiple reaction monitoring mode. The linearity range located in 1.0-50.0 ng/mL for quantitative analysis. The limit of detection and lower limit of quantification for 74 phenethylamines were 0.5 ng/mL and 1.0 ng/mL, respectively. The method was validated and further applied to analyze authentic urine samples. Twenty samples were tested positive of seven phenethylamines from 67 samples, whereas the contents detected were 9.8 ng/mL to 147.1 μg/mL with dilution factors of 40 to 20,000 folds.

Psychoactive Substances of Natural Origin: Toxicological Aspects, Therapeutic Properties and Analysis in Biological Samples

The consumption of new psychoactive substances (NPSs) has been increasing, and this problem affects several countries worldwide. There is a class of NPSs of natural origin, consisting of plants and fungi, which have a wide range of alkaloids, responsible for causing relaxing, stimulating or hallucinogenic effects. The consumption of some of these substances is prompted by religious beliefs and cultural reasons, making the legislation very variable or even ambiguous. However, the abusive consumption of these substances can present an enormous risk to the health of the individuals, since their metabolism and effects are not yet fully known. Additionally, NPSs are widely spread over the internet, and their appearance is very fast, which requires the development of sophisticated analytical methodologies, capable of detecting these compounds. Thus, the objective of this work is to review the toxicological aspects, traditional use/therapeutic potential and the analytical methods developed in biological matrices in twelve plant specimens (Areca catechu, Argyreia nervosa, Ayahuasca, Catha edulis, Datura stramonium, Lophophora williamsii, Mandragora officinarum, Mitragyna speciosa, Piper methysticum Forst, Psilocybe, Salvia divinorum and Tabernanthe iboga).