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Auddy S, Gupta S, Mandi S, Sharma H, Sinha S, Goswami RK. Total Synthesis of Lipopeptide Bacilotetrin C: Discovery of Potent Anticancer Congeners Promoting Autophagy. ACS Med Chem Lett 2024; 15:1340-1350. [PMID: 39140062 PMCID: PMC11318098 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.4c00237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2024] [Revised: 07/22/2024] [Accepted: 07/22/2024] [Indexed: 08/15/2024] Open
Abstract
A convergent strategy for the first total synthesis of the lipopeptide bacilotetrin C has been developed. The key features of this synthesis include Crimmins acetate aldol, Steglich esterification, and macrolactamization. Twenty-nine variants of the natural product were prepared following a systematic structure-activity relationship study, where some of the designed analogues showed promising cytotoxic effects against multiple human carcinoma cell lines. The most potent analogue exhibited a ∼37-fold enhancement in cytotoxicity compared to bacilotetrin C in a triple-negative breast cancer (MDA-MB-231) cell line at submicromolar doses. The study further revealed that some of the analogues induced autophagy in cancer cells to the point of their demise at doses much lower than those of known autophagy-inducing peptides. The results demonstrated that the chemical synthesis of bacilotetrin C with suitable improvisation plays an important role in the development of novel anticancer chemotherapeutics, which would allow future rational design of novel autophagy inducers on this template.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sourya
Shankar Auddy
- School
of Chemical Sciences and School of Applied and Interdisciplinary Sciences, Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, Jadavpur, Kolkata-700032, India
| | - Shalini Gupta
- School
of Chemical Sciences and School of Applied and Interdisciplinary Sciences, Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, Jadavpur, Kolkata-700032, India
| | - Subrata Mandi
- School
of Chemical Sciences and School of Applied and Interdisciplinary Sciences, Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, Jadavpur, Kolkata-700032, India
| | - Himangshu Sharma
- School
of Chemical Sciences and School of Applied and Interdisciplinary Sciences, Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, Jadavpur, Kolkata-700032, India
| | - Surajit Sinha
- School
of Chemical Sciences and School of Applied and Interdisciplinary Sciences, Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, Jadavpur, Kolkata-700032, India
| | - Rajib Kumar Goswami
- School
of Chemical Sciences and School of Applied and Interdisciplinary Sciences, Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, Jadavpur, Kolkata-700032, India
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Zhang X, Ma L, Wang J. Cross-Regulation Between Redox and Epigenetic Systems in Tumorigenesis: Molecular Mechanisms and Clinical Applications. Antioxid Redox Signal 2023; 39:445-471. [PMID: 37265163 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2023.0253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Significance: Redox and epigenetics are two important regulatory processes of cell physiological functions. The cross-regulation between these processes has critical effects on the occurrence and development of various types of tumors. Recent Advances: The core factor that influences redox balance is reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. The ROS functions as a double-edged sword in tumors: Low levels of ROS promote tumors, whereas excessive ROS induces various forms of tumor cell death, including apoptosis and ferroptosis as well as necroptosis and pyroptosis. Many studies have shown that the redox balance is influenced by epigenetic mechanisms such as DNA methylation, histone modification, chromatin remodeling, non-coding RNAs (microRNA, long non-coding RNA, and circular RNA), and RNA N6-methyladenosine modification. Several oxidizing or reducing substances also affect the epigenetic state. Critical Issues: In this review, we summarize research on the cross-regulation between redox and epigenetics in cancer and discuss the relevant molecular mechanisms. We also discuss the current research on the clinical applications. Future Directions: Future research can use high-throughput methods to analyze the molecular mechanisms of the cross-regulation between redox and epigenetics using both in vitro and in vivo models in more detail, elucidate regulatory mechanisms, and provide guidance for clinical treatment. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 39, 445-471.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Zhang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Shanghai Chest Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, P.R. China
- Shanghai Institute of Thoracic Oncology, Shanghai Chest Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Lifang Ma
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Shanghai Chest Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, P.R. China
- Shanghai Institute of Thoracic Oncology, Shanghai Chest Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Jiayi Wang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Shanghai Chest Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, P.R. China
- Shanghai Institute of Thoracic Oncology, Shanghai Chest Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, P.R. China
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Zhang J, Aray B, Zhang Y, Bai Y, Yuan T, Ding S, Xue Y, Huang X, Li Z. Synergistic effect of cucurbitacin E and myricetin on Anti-Non-Small cell lung cancer: Molecular mechanism and therapeutic potential. PHYTOMEDICINE : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2023; 111:154619. [PMID: 36706697 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2022.154619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2021] [Revised: 09/26/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is associated with extremely high morbidity and mortality rates worldwide. Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad, widely distributed in Asian and African countries, is used to treat cancers in traditional Uyghur medicine. HYPOTHESIS/PURPOSE The combination of Cucurbitacin E (CuE) and Myricetin (Myr) of C. colocynthis could treat NSCLC by targeting autophagy. STUDY DESIGN The potential anti-cancer components (CuE and Myr) of C. colocynthis were identified using in-silico methods and further in vitro explored the anti-NSCLC properties of the combination of CuE and Myr. METHODS Network pharmacology and molecular docking were used to identify potential therapeutic compounds of C. colocynthis for the treatment of NSCLC. In A549 cells, the anti-cancer activities and synergy of CuE and Myr were studied using CompuSyn, their mechanism behind autophagy regulation was determined by western blotting and immunofluorescence staining. RESULTS CuMy-12 (CuE: 0.5 µM, Myr: 20 µM), a combination of CuE and Myr from C. colocynthis, inhibited A549 cell proliferation and colony formation, and induced apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in the G0/G1 phase, exhibiting a synergistic effect. Furthermore, CuMy-12 inhibited autophagy and activation of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway, which was characterized by a decrease in Beclin 1, AKT, and phospho-AKT proteins. CONCLUSION CuMy-12 can be considered a natural candidate with anticancer activity for autophagy-based regulation, but mechanistic and clinical studies are required to validate its potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinfang Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Minzu University of China, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Baht Aray
- School of Pharmacy, Minzu University of China, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Yan Zhang
- School of Life and Science, Minzu University of China, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Yinglu Bai
- School of Pharmacy, Minzu University of China, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Tao Yuan
- College of Life Sciences, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang 330027, China
| | - Shilan Ding
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing 100700, China
| | - Yanyu Xue
- School of Life and Science, Minzu University of China, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Xiulan Huang
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing 100700, China.
| | - Zhiyong Li
- School of Pharmacy, Minzu University of China, Beijing 100081, China.
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Cheng X, Xia T, Zhan W, Xu HD, Jiang J, Liu X, Sun X, Wu FG, Liang G. Enzymatic Nanosphere-to-Nanofiber Transition and Autophagy Inducer Release Promote Tumor Chemotherapy. Adv Healthc Mater 2022; 11:e2201916. [PMID: 36148589 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202201916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2022] [Revised: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Chemotherapy has remained an effective and predominant cancer treatment for the past decades, but is hampered by its low response rate and severe systemic toxicity. Combination chemotherapies are proposed to address these issues, yet their therapeutic outcomes are still far from satisfactory. Thus, it is urgent to develop novel strategies to promote tumor chemosensitivity while reducing toxic side effects of chemotherapeutics. Herein, employing a rationally designed peptide conjugate Nap-Phe-Phe-Lys(SA-AZD8055)-Tyr(H2 PO3 )-OH (Nap-AZD-Yp), a novel approach of simultaneous intracellular nanofiber formation and autophagy inducer release is proposed for selectively sensitizing tumor to chemotherapy. Upon sequential catalyses of alkaline phosphatase and carboxylesterase, Nap-AZD-Yp undergoes nanosphere-to-nanofiber transition accompanied by autophagy inducer AZD8055 release in cancer cells. Cell experiments show enhanced endocytosis of anticancer drug doxorubicin and inhibition of cell migration due to the intracellular nanofiber formation. The released AZD8055 further activates excessive autophagy of cancer cells, sensitizing them to chemotherapy. Animal experiment results suggest Nap-AZD-Yp can significantly enhance the therapeutic effects of doxorubicin on tumors while mitigate its toxic adverse effects on normal tissues. It is anticipated that the "smart" concept in this work c be widely employed to develop novel combinational therapies for the treatment of cancers and other diseases in near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaotong Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, 2 Sipailou Road, Nanjing, 210096, P. R. China
| | - Tiantian Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, 2 Sipailou Road, Nanjing, 210096, P. R. China
| | - Wenjun Zhan
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, 2 Sipailou Road, Nanjing, 210096, P. R. China
| | - Hai-Dong Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, 2 Sipailou Road, Nanjing, 210096, P. R. China
| | - Jiaoming Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, 2 Sipailou Road, Nanjing, 210096, P. R. China
| | - Xiaoyang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, 2 Sipailou Road, Nanjing, 210096, P. R. China
| | - Xianbao Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, 2 Sipailou Road, Nanjing, 210096, P. R. China
| | - Fu-Gen Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, 2 Sipailou Road, Nanjing, 210096, P. R. China
| | - Gaolin Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, 2 Sipailou Road, Nanjing, 210096, P. R. China
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Downregulation of LKB1/AMPK Signaling in Blood Mononuclear Cells Is Associated with the Severity of Guillain-Barre Syndrome. Cells 2022; 11:cells11182897. [PMID: 36139470 PMCID: PMC9496801 DOI: 10.3390/cells11182897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2022] [Revised: 09/06/2022] [Accepted: 09/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is an intracellular energy sensor that regulates metabolic and immune functions mainly through the inhibition of the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR)-dependent anabolic pathways and the activation of catabolic processes such as autophagy. The AMPK/mTOR signaling pathway and autophagy markers were analyzed by immunoblotting in blood mononuclear cells of 20 healthy control subjects and 23 patients with an acute demyelinating form of Guillain–Barré syndrome (GBS). The activation of the liver kinase B1 (LKB1)/AMPK/Raptor signaling axis was significantly reduced in GBS compared to control subjects. In contrast, the phosphorylated forms of mTOR activator AKT and mTOR substrate 4EBP1, as well as the levels of autophagy markers LC3-II, beclin-1, ATG5, p62/sequestosome 1, and NBR1 were similar between the two groups. The downregulation of LKB1/AMPK signaling, but not the activation status of the AKT/mTOR/4EBP1 pathway or the levels of autophagy markers, correlated with higher clinical activity and worse outcomes of GBS. A retrospective study in a diabetic cohort of GBS patients demonstrated that treatment with AMPK activator metformin was associated with milder GBS compared to insulin/sulphonylurea therapy. In conclusion, the impairment of the LKB1/AMPK pathway might contribute to the development/progression of GBS, thus representing a potential therapeutic target in this immune-mediated peripheral polyneuropathy.
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Xu P, Zhang S, Tan L, Wang L, Yang Z, Li J. Local Anesthetic Ropivacaine Exhibits Therapeutic Effects in Cancers. Front Oncol 2022; 12:836882. [PMID: 35186766 PMCID: PMC8851418 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.836882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the significant progress in cancer treatment, new anticancer therapeutics drugs with new structures and/or mechanisms are still in urgent need to tackle many key challenges. Drug repurposing is a feasible strategy in discovering new drugs among the approved drugs by defining new indications. Recently, ropivacaine, a local anesthetic that has been applied in clinical practice for several decades, has been found to possess inhibitory activity and sensitizing effects when combined with conventional chemotherapeutics toward cancer cells. While its full applications and the exact targets remain to be revealed, it has been indicated that its anticancer potency was mediated by multiple mechanisms, such as modulating sodium channel, inducing mitochondria-associated apoptosis, cell cycle arrest, inhibiting autophagy, and/or regulating other key players in cancer cells, which can be termed as multi-targets/functions that require more in-depth studies. In this review, we attempted to summarize the research past decade of using ropivacaine in suppressing cancer growth and sensitizing anticancer drugs both in-vitro and in-vivo, and tried to interpret the underlying action modes. The information gained in these findings may inspire multidisciplinary efforts to develop/discover more novel anticancer agents via drug repurposing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Xu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Shaobo Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Lili Tan
- Department of Anesthesiology, Gansu Provincial Maternity and Child Care Hospital, Lanzhou, China
| | - Lei Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Gansu Provincial Maternity and Child Care Hospital, Lanzhou, China
| | - Zhongwei Yang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jinbao Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
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Saikosaponin D Inhibits the Proliferation and Promotes the Apoptosis of Rat Hepatic Stellate Cells by Inducing Autophagosome Formation. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2021; 2021:5451758. [PMID: 34457023 PMCID: PMC8390134 DOI: 10.1155/2021/5451758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2021] [Revised: 07/18/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Objective This study aimed to investigate the effects of saikosaponin D (SSd) on the proliferation and apoptosis of the HSC-T6 hepatic stellate cell line and determine the key pathway that mediates SSd's function. Methods Cell viability was detected using the CCK-8 kit. The EdU kit and flow cytometry were used to examine cell proliferation. The Annexin V-FITC/PI double staining kit and flow cytometry were used to examine cell apoptosis. Western blot analysis was performed to analyze the expression levels of LC3, Ki67, cleaved caspase 3, Bax, and Bcl2. Autophagosome formation was detected by LC3-GFP adenovirus transfection. Results SSd inhibits the proliferation and promotes the apoptosis of acetaldehyde-activated HSC-T6 cells. SSd treatment increased the expression of cleaved caspase 3 and Bax but reduced that of Ki67 and Bcl2. The same concentration of SSd barely influenced the growth of normal rat liver BRL-3A cells. SSd upregulated LC3-II expression and induced autophagosome formation. Autophagy agonist rapamycin had the same effect as SSd and autophagy inhibitor 3-methyladenine could neutralize the effect of SSd in acetaldehyde-activated HSC-T6 cells. Conclusions SSd could inhibit the proliferation and promote the apoptosis of HSC-T6 cells by inducing autophagosome formation.
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Chen P, Yao Z, He Z. Resveratrol protects against high glucose-induced oxidative damage in human lens epithelial cells by activating autophagy. Exp Ther Med 2021; 21:440. [PMID: 33747177 PMCID: PMC7967869 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2021.9871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2019] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In the pathogenesis of diabetic cataract, high glucose levels induce oxidative damage in human lens epithelial cells (HLECs). Resveratrol has been demonstrated to be a potent antioxidant in various disease conditions; however, limited information is available on its effects on oxidative damage associated with the pathogenesis of diabetic cataract in HLECs. The present study aimed to determine whether resveratrol prevents high glucose-induced oxidative damage to human lens epithelial cells by activating autophagy. In the present study, HLECs treated with high glucose were used as a cellular model of diabetic cataract and treated with resveratrol for 24 h. Flow cytometry was performed to detect the cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) content. Autophagy marker protein levels were determined by western blotting. Immunofluorescence assay was performed to analyze in vitro microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 β (LC3B) protein expression. Autophagosome formation in HLECs was observed using transmission electron microscopy. The results demonstrated that high glucose suppressed HLEC viability and proliferation rate compared with normal glucose levels (5 mM), which were significantly reversed by resveratrol treatment. High glucose also increased the ROS content compared with ROS content in normal HLECs, which was reduced following resveratrol treatment. Further experiments demonstrated that resveratrol significantly reversed the high glucose-decreased protein levels of LC3II and beclin-1 proteins and the high glucose-increased protein levels of LC3I and p62 in HLECs. In conclusion, resveratrol inhibited the high glucose-induced oxidative damage in HLECs by promoting autophagy through the activation of the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathway. These results provide a theoretical basis for the application of resveratrol in diabetic cataract prevention and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pengzhi Chen
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Affiliated Hospital of Inner Mongolia University for Nationalities, Tongliao, Inner Mongolia 028006, P.R. China
| | - Zhenyu Yao
- Medical College, Inner Mongolia University for Nationalities, Tongliao, Inner Mongolia 028006, P.R. China
| | - Zhihui He
- Medical College, Inner Mongolia University for Nationalities, Tongliao, Inner Mongolia 028006, P.R. China
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Zhu E, Wu H, Chen W, Qin Y, Liu J, Fan S, Ma S, Wu K, Mao Q, Luo C, Qin Y, Yi L, Ding H, Zhao M, Chen J. Classical swine fever virus employs the PERK- and IRE1-dependent autophagy for viral replication in cultured cells. Virulence 2020; 12:130-149. [PMID: 33380286 PMCID: PMC7781608 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2020.1845040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS)-mediated autophagy is indispensable for modulation of replication and pathogenesis of numerous mammalian viruses. We have previously shown that classical swine fever virus (CSFV) infection induces ERS-mediated autophagy for maintaining viral replication both in vivo and in vitro, however, the underlying mechanism remains unclarified. Here we found that CSFV infection activates the PERK pathway-dependent complete autophagy to promote viral replication in cultured PK-15 and 3D4/2 cells. Likewise, our results also suggested the essential roles of the IRE1/GRP78-mediated complete autophagy in CSFV replication in vitro. Furthermore, we suggested that CSFV infection induces activation of the PERK and IRE1 pathway for potential immunoregulation via promoting transcription of proinflammatory cytokine (IFN-γ and TNF-α) genes in the CSFV-infected cells. Finally, pharmacological treatment of PERK- or IRE1-pathway regulators, and the corresponding SiRNAs interventions did not affect the viabilities of the cells, excluding the potential interference elicited by altered cell viabilities. Taken together, our results suggest that CSFV infection induces complete autophagy through activation of the PERK and IRE1 pathway to facilitate viral replication in cultured cells, and modulation of proinflammatory cytokines may be a potential mechanism involved in this event. Our findings will open new horizons for molecular mechanisms of sustainable replication and pathogenesis of CSFV, and lay a theoretical foundation for the development of ERS-autophagy-targeting therapeutic strategies for clinical control of CSF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erpeng Zhu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University , Guangzhou, China.,Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture , Guangzhou, China.,Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Science, Guizhou University , Guiyang, China
| | - Huawei Wu
- Department of Viral Biologics, China Institute of Veterinary Drug Control , Beijing, China
| | - Wenxian Chen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University , Guangzhou, China.,Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture , Guangzhou, China
| | - Yuwei Qin
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University , Guangzhou, China.,Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture , Guangzhou, China
| | - Jiameng Liu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University , Guangzhou, China.,Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture , Guangzhou, China
| | - Shuangqi Fan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University , Guangzhou, China.,Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture , Guangzhou, China
| | - Shengming Ma
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University , Guangzhou, China.,Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture , Guangzhou, China
| | - Keke Wu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University , Guangzhou, China.,Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture , Guangzhou, China
| | - Qian Mao
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University , Guangzhou, China.,Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture , Guangzhou, China
| | - Chaowei Luo
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University , Guangzhou, China.,Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture , Guangzhou, China
| | - Yixian Qin
- Department of Viral Biologics, China Institute of Veterinary Drug Control , Beijing, China
| | - Lin Yi
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University , Guangzhou, China.,Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture , Guangzhou, China
| | - Hongxing Ding
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University , Guangzhou, China.,Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture , Guangzhou, China
| | - Mingqiu Zhao
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University , Guangzhou, China.,Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture , Guangzhou, China
| | - Jinding Chen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University , Guangzhou, China.,Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture , Guangzhou, China
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Radovanovic M, Vidicevic S, Tasic J, Tomonjic N, Stanojevic Z, Nikic P, Vuksanovic A, Dzamic Z, Bumbasirevic U, Isakovic A, Trajkovic V. Role of AMPK/mTOR-independent autophagy in clear cell renal cell carcinoma. J Investig Med 2020; 68:1386-1393. [PMID: 33087428 DOI: 10.1136/jim-2020-001524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
We examined the status and role of autophagy, a process of lysosomal recycling of cellular material, in clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC). Paired samples of tumor and adjacent non-malignant tissue were collected from 20 patients with ccRCC after radical nephrectomy. The mRNA levels of apoptosis (BAD, BAX, BCL2, BCLXL, BIM) and autophagy (ATG4, BECN1, GABARAP, p62, UVRAG) regulators were measured by RT-qPCR. The protein levels of autophagosome-associated LC3-II, autophagy receptor p62, apoptotic marker PARP, as well as phosphorylation of autophagy initiator Unc 51-like kinase 1 (ULK1), its activator AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and 4EBP1, the substrate of ULK1 inhibitor mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), were analyzed by immunoblotting. The mRNA levels of pro-apoptotic BAX, anti-apoptotic BCLXL and pro-autophagic ATG4, p62 and UVRAG were higher in ccRCC tumors. Autophagy induction was confirmed by an increase in phospho-ULK1 and degradation of the autophagic target p62, while apoptotic PARP cleavage was unaltered. AMPK phosphorylation was reduced and 4EBP1 phosphorylation was increased in ccRCC tissue. The expression of apoptosis regulators did not correlate with clinicopathological features of ccRCC. Conversely, high mRNA levels of ATG4, GABARAP and p62 were associated with lower tumor stage, as well as with smaller tumor size and better disease-specific 5-year survival (ATG4 and p62). Accordingly, low p62 protein levels, corresponding to increased autophagic flux, were associated with lower tumor stage, reduced metastasis and improved 5-year survival. These data demonstrate that transcriptional induction of autophagy in ccRCC is accompanied by AMPK/mTOR-independent increase in ULK1 activation and autophagic flux, which might slow tumor progression and metastasis independently of apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sasenka Vidicevic
- Institute of Medical and Clinical Biochemistry, University of Belgrade Faculty of Medicine, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Jelena Tasic
- Institute of Medical and Clinical Biochemistry, University of Belgrade Faculty of Medicine, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Nina Tomonjic
- Institute of Medical and Clinical Biochemistry, University of Belgrade Faculty of Medicine, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Zeljka Stanojevic
- Institute of Medical and Clinical Biochemistry, University of Belgrade Faculty of Medicine, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Predrag Nikic
- Clinic of Urology, Clinical Center of Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia
| | | | - Zoran Dzamic
- Clinic of Urology, Clinical Center of Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia
| | | | - Aleksandra Isakovic
- Institute of Medical and Clinical Biochemistry, University of Belgrade Faculty of Medicine, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Vladimir Trajkovic
- Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Belgrade Faculty of Medicine, Belgrade, Serbia
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Al-Bari MAA. Co-targeting of lysosome and mitophagy in cancer stem cells with chloroquine analogues and antibiotics. J Cell Mol Med 2020; 24:11667-11679. [PMID: 32935427 PMCID: PMC7578893 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.15879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2019] [Revised: 08/26/2020] [Accepted: 08/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The catabolic autophagy eliminates cytoplasmic components and organelles via lysosomes. Non‐selective bulk autophagy and selective autophagy (mitophagy) are linked in intracellular homeostasis both normal and cancer cells. Autophagy has complex and paradoxical dual role in cancers; it can play either tumour suppressor or tumour promoter depending on the tumour type, stage, microenvironment and genetic context. Cancer stem cells (CSCs) cause tumour recurrence and promote resistant to therapy for driving poor clinical consequences. Thus, new healing strategies are urgently needed to annihilate and eradicate CSCs. As chloroquine (CQ) analogues show positive clinical outcome in several clinical trials either standalone or combination with several chemotherapies. Moreover, CQ analogues are known to eliminate CSCs via altering DNA methylation. However, several obstacles such as higher concentrations and dose‐dependent toxicity are noticeable in the treatment of cancers. As tumour cells predominantly rely on mitochondrial actions, mitochondrial targeting FDA‐approved antibiotics are reported to effectively eradicate CSCs alone or combination with chemotherapy. However, antibiotics cause metabolic glycolytic shift in cancer cells for survival and repopulation. This review will provide a sketch of the inhibiting roles of current chloroquine analogues and antibiotic combination in CSC autophagy process and discuss the possibility that pre‐clinical and clinical potential therapeutic strategy for anticancer therapy.
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CPI-613 rewires lipid metabolism to enhance pancreatic cancer apoptosis via the AMPK-ACC signaling. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL & CLINICAL CANCER RESEARCH : CR 2020; 39:73. [PMID: 32345326 PMCID: PMC7187515 DOI: 10.1186/s13046-020-01579-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2019] [Accepted: 04/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pancreatic cancer remains one of the most rapidly progressive and deadly malignancies worldwide. Current treatment regimens only result in small improvements in overall survival for patients with this cancer type. CPI-613 (Devimistat), a novel lipoate analog inhibiting mitochondrial metabolism, shows the new hope for pancreatic cancer treatment as an efficient and well-tolerated therapeutic option treated alone or in combination with chemotherapy. METHODS Pancreatic cancer cells growing in planar 2D cultures and 3D scaffold were used as research platforms. Cell viability was measured by MTT and alamarBlue, and apoptosis was assessed by JC-1 staining and flow cytometry with Annexin V-FITC/PI staining. The mechanism behind CPI-613 action was analyzed by western blot, transmission electron microscopy, and lipolysis assay kits, in the presence or absence of additional signaling pathway inhibitors or gene modifications. RESULTS CPI-613 exhibits anticancer activity in pancreatic cancer cells by triggering ROS-associated apoptosis, which is accompanied by increased autophagy and repressed lipid metabolism through activating the AMPK signaling. Intriguingly, ACC, the key enzyme modulating lipid metabolism, is identified as a vital target of CPI-613, which is inactivated in an AMPK-dependent manner and influences apoptotic process upon CPI-613. Blockade or enhancement of autophagic process does not increase or blunt apoptosis to CPI-613, but inhibition of the AMPK-ACC signaling significantly attenuates apoptosis induced by CPI-613, suggesting CPI-613-mediated lipid metabolism reduction contributes to its cytotoxicity in pancreatic cancer cells. CONCLUSIONS These findings explore the critical role of lipid metabolism in apoptosis, providing new insights into the AMPK-ACC signaling axis in crosstalk between lipid metabolism and apoptosis in CPI-613 treatment.
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Wang Y, Chen YJ, Xiang C, Jiang GW, Xu YD, Yin LM, Zhou DD, Liu YY, Yang YQ. Discovery of potential asthma targets based on the clinical efficacy of Traditional Chinese Medicine formulas. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2020; 252:112635. [PMID: 32004629 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2020.112635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2019] [Revised: 01/23/2020] [Accepted: 01/24/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Standard therapy for asthma, a highly heterogeneous disease, is primarily based on bronchodilators and immunosuppressive drugs, which confer short-term symptomatic relief but not a cure. It is difficult to discover novel bronchodilators, although potential new targets are emerging. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) formulas have been used to treat asthma for more than 2000 years, forming the basis for representative asthma treatments. AIM OF THE STUDY Based on the efficacy of TCM formulas, anti-asthmatic herbal compounds bind proteins are potential targets for asthma therapy. This analysis will provide new drug targets and discovery strategies for asthma therapy. MATERIALS AND METHODS A list of candidate herbs for asthma was selected from the classical formulas (CFs) of TCM for the treatment of wheezing or dyspnea recorded in Treatise on Cold Damage and Miscellaneous Diseases (TCDMD) and from modern herbal formulas identified in the SAPHRON TCM Database using the keywords "wheezing" or "dyspnea". Compounds in the selected herbs and compounds that directly bind target proteins were acquired by searching the Herbal Ingredients' Targets Database (HITD), TCM Data Bank (TCMDB) and TCM Integrated Database (TCMID). Therapeutic targets of conventional medicine (CM) for asthma were collected by searching Therapeutic Target Database (TTD), DrugBank and PubMed as supplements. Finally, the enriched gene ontology (GO) terms of the targets were obtained using the Database for Annotation Visualization and Integrated Discovery (DAVID) and protein-protein interactions (PPI) networks were constructed using Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes/Proteins (STRING). The effects of two selected TCM compounds, kaempferol and ginkgolide A, on cellular resistance in human airway smooth muscle cells (ASMCs) and pulmonary resistance in a mouse model were investigated. RESULTS The list of 32 candidate herbs for asthma was selected from 10 CFs for the treatment of wheezing or dyspnea recorded in TCDMD and 1037 modern herbal formulas obtained from the SAPHRON TCM Database. A total of 130 compounds from the 32 selected herbs and 68 herbal compounds directly bind target proteins were acquired from HITD and TCMDB. Eighty-eight therapeutic targets of CM for asthma were collected by searching TTD and PubMed as supplements. DAVID and STRING analyses showed targets of TCM formulas are primarily related to cytochrome P450 (CYP) family, transient receptor potential (TRP) channels, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and ribosomal protein. Both TCM formulas and CM act on the same types of targets or signaling pathways, such as G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), steroid hormone receptors (SHRs), and JAK-STAT signaling pathway. The proteins directly targeted by herbal compounds, TRPM8, TRPA1, TRPV3, CYP1B1, CYP2B6, CYP1A2, CYP3A4, CYP1A1, PPARA, PPARD, NR1I2, MMP1, MMP2, ESR1, ESR2, RPLP0, RPLP1 and RPLP2, are potential targets for asthma therapy. In vitro results showed kaempferol (1 × 10-2 mM) and ginkgolide A (1 × 10-5 mM) significantly increased the cell index (P < 0.05 vs. histamine, n = 3) and therefore relaxed human ASMCs. In vivo results showed kaempferol (145 μg/kg) and ginkgolide A (205 μg/kg) significantly reduced pulmonary resistance (P < 0.05 vs. methacholine, n = 6). CONCLUSION Potential target discovery for asthma treatment based on the clinical effectiveness of TCM is a feasible strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Wang
- International Union Laboratory on Acupuncture Based Target Discovery, International Joint Laboratory on Acupuncture Neuro-immunology, Shanghai Research Institute of Acupuncture and Meridian, Yue Yang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China; Experiment Center for Science and Technology, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Yan-Jiao Chen
- International Union Laboratory on Acupuncture Based Target Discovery, International Joint Laboratory on Acupuncture Neuro-immunology, Shanghai Research Institute of Acupuncture and Meridian, Yue Yang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Cheng Xiang
- International Union Laboratory on Acupuncture Based Target Discovery, International Joint Laboratory on Acupuncture Neuro-immunology, Shanghai Research Institute of Acupuncture and Meridian, Yue Yang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Guang-Wei Jiang
- International Union Laboratory on Acupuncture Based Target Discovery, International Joint Laboratory on Acupuncture Neuro-immunology, Shanghai Research Institute of Acupuncture and Meridian, Yue Yang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Yu-Dong Xu
- International Union Laboratory on Acupuncture Based Target Discovery, International Joint Laboratory on Acupuncture Neuro-immunology, Shanghai Research Institute of Acupuncture and Meridian, Yue Yang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Lei-Miao Yin
- International Union Laboratory on Acupuncture Based Target Discovery, International Joint Laboratory on Acupuncture Neuro-immunology, Shanghai Research Institute of Acupuncture and Meridian, Yue Yang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Dong-Dong Zhou
- International Union Laboratory on Acupuncture Based Target Discovery, International Joint Laboratory on Acupuncture Neuro-immunology, Shanghai Research Institute of Acupuncture and Meridian, Yue Yang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Yan-Yan Liu
- International Union Laboratory on Acupuncture Based Target Discovery, International Joint Laboratory on Acupuncture Neuro-immunology, Shanghai Research Institute of Acupuncture and Meridian, Yue Yang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Yong-Qing Yang
- International Union Laboratory on Acupuncture Based Target Discovery, International Joint Laboratory on Acupuncture Neuro-immunology, Shanghai Research Institute of Acupuncture and Meridian, Yue Yang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China.
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Misaponin B Induces G2/M Arrest, Cytokinesis Failure and Impairs Autophagy. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2020; 2020:5925094. [PMID: 32090100 PMCID: PMC7029305 DOI: 10.1155/2020/5925094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2019] [Accepted: 01/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Saponins are a group of naturally occurring plant glycosides with the features of their strong foam-forming properties and multibiological effects such as antitumor activity. Though Misaponin B, one of the triterpenoid saponins from Madhuca longifolia, is known to have spermicidal and antioxidant activity, the other biological activities have been never reported so far. Thus, in the present study, the antitumor mechanism of Misaponin B was investigated in A549 and AsPC-1 cancer cells. Misaponin B exerted significant cytotoxicity in A549, H460, SKOV3, and AsPC-1 cancer cells. Among them, A549 and AsPC-1 cells were more susceptible to Misaponin B. Misaponin B induced G2/M arrest and cytokinesis failure and increased the expression of LC3B and p62 with autophagic vacuoles and GFP-LC3 punctae in A549 and AsPC-1 cells. Furthermore, Misaponin B suppressed autophagy flux in A549 cells transfected by GFP-mRFP-LC3 constructs by showing merged yellow color by autophagy flux assay. Overall, our findings provide evidences that Misaponin B induces G2M arrest and impairs autophagy in A549 and AsPC-1 cells.
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Gao L, Loveless J, Shay C, Teng Y. Targeting ROS-Mediated Crosstalk Between Autophagy and Apoptosis in Cancer. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2020; 1260:1-12. [PMID: 32304028 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-42667-5_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The control of crosstalk between autophagy and apoptosis in tumor cells can remove a critical barrier to comprehensive and efficacious treatment for cancer. Reactive oxygen species (ROS), by-products of redox homeostasis, are critical for regulating the balance between autophagy and apoptosis in cancer cells upon different drug treatments and gene modifications. The mechanisms and consequences involved in ROS-mediated crosstalk between apoptosis and autophagy are extremely complex in cancer cells. Here, we mainly discuss the closely linked relationship between ROS levels, autophagy, and apoptosis in cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lixia Gao
- International Academy of Targeted Therapeutics and Innovation, Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences, Chongqing, P. R. China
| | - Jenni Loveless
- Department of Oral Biology and Diagnostic Sciences, Dental College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA
| | - Chloe Shay
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory Children's Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Yong Teng
- Department of Oral Biology and Diagnostic Sciences, Dental College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA. .,Georgia Cancer Center, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA. .,Department of Medical Laboratory, Imaging and Radiologic Sciences, College of Allied Health, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA.
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Zhu E, Chen W, Qin Y, Ma S, Fan S, Wu K, Li W, Fan J, Yi L, Ding H, Chen J, Zhao M. Classical Swine Fever Virus Infection Induces Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress-Mediated Autophagy to Sustain Viral Replication in vivo and in vitro. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:2545. [PMID: 31798542 PMCID: PMC6861840 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.02545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2019] [Accepted: 10/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-mediated autophagy plays significant roles in replication and pathogenesis of many animal viruses. However, the relationship between ER stress, autophagy, and viral replication during in vivo and in vitro infection of classical swine fever virus (CSFV) remains unclear. In this study, we established a pig model for CSFV infection and found that viral loads of CSFV differed in 10 kinds of infected organs, and that the degree of tissue lesions was to some extent positively correlated with CSFV replication in vivo. Next, we found that CSFV infection not only induced ER stress and subsequently activated three unfolded protein responses (UPR) pathways including protein kinase R-like ER kinase (PERK), inositol requiring enzyme 1 (IRE1), and activating transcription factor-6 (ATF-6) pathways, but also triggered complete autophagy in main immune organs and partial nonimmune organs exhibiting severer pathological injuries and higher viral loads. However, only the IRE1 pathway and no autophagy were activated in some other nonimmune organs with slighter pathologies and lower viral loads. These results indicate a potential link between CSFV-induced ER stress and autophagy, both of which are associated with the CSFV replication in vivo. We further performed in vitro experiments and found that CSFV infection activates the PERK and IRE1 pathways and autophagy in cultured porcine kidney cell lines (PK-15) and macrophage cell lines (3D4/2), and pharmacological regulation of ER stress remarkably changed autophagic activities induced by CSFV, suggesting that CSFV-induced autophagy can be mediated by ER stress possibly via the PERK and IRE1 pathway. Furthermore, treatment with ER stress regulators significantly altered copy numbers of NS5B genes, expression of Npro proteins, and viral titers in CSFV-infected cells or in cells treated with autophagy regulators prior to CSFV infection, suggesting the requirement of ER stress-mediated autophagy for CSFV replication in vitro. Collectively, our data demonstrate that CSFV induces ER stress-mediated autophagy to sustain its replication in vivo and in vitro, which may be one of the potential strategies exploited by CSFV for immune evasion. This finding will provide new insights into mechanisms of replication and pathogenesis of CSFV, and development of new strategies for controlling CSF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erpeng Zhu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wenxian Chen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yuwei Qin
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shengming Ma
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shuangqi Fan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Keke Wu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wenhui Li
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jindai Fan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Lin Yi
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Hongxing Ding
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jinding Chen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Mingqiu Zhao
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
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Korolenko TA, Shintyapina AB, Pupyshev AB, Akopyan AA, Russkikh GS, Dikovskaya MA, Vavilin VA, Zavjalov EL, Tikhonova MA, Amstislavskaya TG. The regulatory role of cystatin C in autophagy and neurodegeneration. Vavilovskii Zhurnal Genet Selektsii 2019. [DOI: 10.18699/vj19.507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is a dynamic cellular process involved in the turnover of proteins, protein complexes, and organelles through lysosomal degradation. It is particularly important in neurons, which do not have a proliferative option for cellular repair. Autophagy has been shown to be suppressed in the striatum of a transgenic mouse model of Parkinson’s disease. Cystatin C is one of the potent regulators of autophagy. Changes in the expression and secretion of cystatin C in the brain have been shown in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases, and in some animal models of neurodegeneration, thus proving a protective function of cystatin C. It has been suggested that cystatin C plays the primary role in amyloidogenesis and shows promise as a therapeutic agent for neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases). Cystatin C colocalizes with the amyloid β-protein in the brain during Alzheimer’s disease. Controlled expression of a cystatin C peptide has been proposed as a new approach to therapy for Alzheimer’s disease. In Parkinson’s disease, serum cystatin C levels can predict disease severity and cognitive dysfunction, although the exact involvement of cystatin C remains unclear. The aim: to study the role of cystatin C in neurodegeneration and evaluate the results in relation to the mechanism of autophagy. In our study on humans, a higher concentration of cystatin C was noted in cerebrospinal fluid than in serum; much lower concentrations were observed in other biological fluids (intraocular fluid, bile, and sweat). In elderly persons (61–80 years old compared to practically healthy people at 40–60 years of age), we revealed increased cystatin C levels both in serum and intraocular fluid. In an experiment on C57Bl/6J mice, cystatin C concentration was significantly higher in brain tissue than in the liver and spleen: an indication of an important function of this cysteine protease inhibitor in the brain. Using a transgenic mouse model of Parkinson’s disease (5 months old), we demonstrated a significant increase in osmotic susceptibility of brain lysosomes, depending on autophagy, while in a murine model of Alzheimer’s disease, this parameter did not differ from that in the appropriate control.
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Affiliation(s)
- T. A. Korolenko
- Scientific Research Institute of Physiology and Basic Medicine
| | - A. B. Shintyapina
- Scientific Research Institute of Molecular Biology and Biophysics, Federal Research Center for Basic and Translational Medicine
| | - A. B. Pupyshev
- Scientific Research Institute of Physiology and Basic Medicine
| | - A. A. Akopyan
- Scientific Research Institute of Physiology and Basic Medicine
| | - G. S. Russkikh
- Scientific Research Institute of Biochemistry, Federal Research Center for Basic and Translational Medicine
| | - M. A. Dikovskaya
- Scientific Research Institute of Physiology and Basic Medicine; S.N. Fedorov NMRC “MNTK “Eye Microsurgery”, Novosibirsk Branch
| | - V. A. Vavilin
- Scientific Research Institute of Molecular Biology and Biophysics, Federal Research Center for Basic and Translational Medicine; Institute of Cytology and Genetics, SB RAS
| | | | - M. A. Tikhonova
- Scientific Research Institute of Physiology and Basic Medicine; Novosibirsk State University
| | - T. G. Amstislavskaya
- Scientific Research Institute of Physiology and Basic Medicine; Novosibirsk State University
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Qin X, Shi X, Tu L, Ma Y, Zhou Z, Zhao R, Zhan M, Yin F, Li Z. Autophagy inducing cyclic peptides constructed by methionine alkylation. Chem Commun (Camb) 2019; 55:4198-4201. [PMID: 30896003 DOI: 10.1039/c9cc01027k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Peptides that induced autophagy at micromolar concentrations with improved proteolytic resistance properties were generated using the facile methionine bis-alkylation method. Notably, a short bicyclic peptide 7f was proven to be the most potent one among the designed peptides in regards to autophagy inducing activity. This study facilitated the development of a peptide-based autophagy inducer and demonstrated the potential applications of the methionine alkylation-based macrocyclization method for the diversity-oriented generation of peptide-based autophagy inducers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuan Qin
- State Key laboratory of Chemical Oncogenomics, School of Chemical Biology and Biotechnology, Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen, 518055, P. R. China.
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19
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Saikosaponin D suppresses enterovirus A71 infection by inhibiting autophagy. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2019; 4:4. [PMID: 30820356 PMCID: PMC6385247 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-019-0037-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2018] [Revised: 12/31/2018] [Accepted: 01/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The dysregulation of autophagy, an evolutionarily conserved lysosomal degradation process, has been implicated in a wide variety of human diseases, and thus, small chemicals that modulate autophagy have therapeutic potential. Here, we assessed the ability of active components isolated from Bupleurum falcatum, a popular Chinese herb, to modulate autophagy. We found that saikosaponin D (SsD) and A (SsA) but not C (SsC) potently and reversibly inhibited the fusion of autophagosomes and lysosomes, resulting in the accumulation of autophagosomes, an increased lysosomal pH, and TFEB nuclear translocation. RAB5A knockdown or the expression of a dominant-negative RAB5 mutant significantly reduced the ability of SsD or SsA to block autophagy. Enterovirus A71 (EV-A71), the cause of hand-foot-mouth disease, has been shown to induce autophagy. We found that SsD potently inhibited EV-A71 RNA replication and subsequent viral protein synthesis, thereby preventing EV-A71-induced cell death. ATG5 knockdown inhibited EV-A71 viral protein synthesis, whereas autophagy induction by rapamycin promoted synthesis. Taken together, our data indicate that SsD and SsA are potent late-stage autophagy inhibitors that can be used to prevent EV-A71 infection. Components of a popular Chinese herb known as Chaihu may inhibit the ability of the virus that causes hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD) to infect cells by interfering with the natural process cells use to dispose of dysfunctional and unwanted components. Dysregulated autophagy has been implicated in various human diseases, included viral infections. Previous studies have suggested that Enterovirus A71 (EV-71), which causes HFMD, might subvert this process to aid its replication. Saikosaponins are active components of the herb Bupleurum falcatum, which appear to modulate autophagy. Jianbo Yue at the City University of Hong Kong and colleagues discovered that two such molecules, saikosaponin A and D, inhibited a key step in the autophagy process: the fusion of autophagosomes and lysosomes. This inhibited EV-A71 protein synthesis and the death of infected cells.
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20
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Gao L, Zhao X, Lang L, Shay C, Andrew Yeudall W, Teng Y. Autophagy blockade sensitizes human head and neck squamous cell carcinoma towards CYT997 through enhancing excessively high reactive oxygen species-induced apoptosis. J Mol Med (Berl) 2018; 96:929-938. [PMID: 30022281 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-018-1670-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2018] [Revised: 06/28/2018] [Accepted: 07/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The functional relationship between apoptosis and autophagy in anticancer drug treatment is extremely complex, and the molecular machinery is obscure. This study aims to investigate the efficacy of CYT997, a novel microtubule-disrupting agent, in head and neck squamous cell carcinomas (HNSCCs) and complete the autophagy-apoptosis puzzle involved in drug action. We report here that CYT997 exhibits anticancer activity by triggering oxidative stress-associated apoptosis in HNSCC cells. Interestingly, upregulation of autophagy by mTOR-dependent pathways appears to have a cytoprotective role in preventing apoptosis by inhibiting CYT997-induced excessively high levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Blockade of autophagy by ATG7 depletion or addition of autophagy inhibitor hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) sensitizes HNSCC cells to CYT997 as evidenced by enhanced ROS-associated apoptosis. Moreover, HCQ exhibits a good synergism with CYT997 on induction of apoptosis in HNSCC xenografts without cytotoxicity, suggesting combined treatment of CYT997 with autophagy inhibitors would increase the anticancer efficacy of CYT997. These findings unveil the importance of ROS in crosstalk between autophagy and apoptosis in CYT997 treatment, raising concerns that genetic or pharmacologic blockade of autophagy should be considered in the design of new therapeutics for HNSCC. KEY MESSAGES • CYT997 exhibits anticancer activity by induction of ROS-associated apoptosis. • mTOR-dependent cytoprotective autophagy prevents CYT997-induced apoptosis. • Blockade of autophagy augments CYT997 efficacy by enhanced ROS-associated apoptosis. • Combination of autophagy inhibitors with CYT997 is more effective against HNSCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lixia Gao
- School of Life Sciences, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China
- Department of Oral Biology and Diagnostic Sciences, Augusta University, 1120 15th Street, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA
| | - Xiangdong Zhao
- Department of Oral Biology and Diagnostic Sciences, Augusta University, 1120 15th Street, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA
| | - Liwei Lang
- Department of Oral Biology and Diagnostic Sciences, Augusta University, 1120 15th Street, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA
| | - Chloe Shay
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory Children's Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
- The Robinson College of Business, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - W Andrew Yeudall
- Department of Oral Biology and Diagnostic Sciences, Augusta University, 1120 15th Street, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA
- Georgia Cancer Center, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA
| | - Yong Teng
- Department of Oral Biology and Diagnostic Sciences, Augusta University, 1120 15th Street, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA.
- Georgia Cancer Center, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA.
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA.
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Pawlowska E, Szczepanska J, Wisniewski K, Tokarz P, Jaskólski DJ, Blasiak J. NF-κB-Mediated Inflammation in the Pathogenesis of Intracranial Aneurysm and Subarachnoid Hemorrhage. Does Autophagy Play a Role? Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:E1245. [PMID: 29671828 PMCID: PMC5979412 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19041245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2018] [Revised: 04/13/2018] [Accepted: 04/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The rupture of saccular intracranial aneurysms (IA) is the commonest cause of non-traumatic subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH)—the most serious form of stroke with a high mortality rate. Aneurysm walls are usually characterized by an active inflammatory response, and NF-κB (nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells) has been identified as the main transcription factor regulating the induction of inflammation-related genes in IA lesions. This transcription factor has also been related to IA rupture and resulting SAH. We and others have shown that autophagy interacts with inflammation in many diseases, but there is no information of such interplay in IA. Moreover, NF-κB, which is a pivotal factor controlling inflammation, is regulated by autophagy-related proteins, and autophagy is regulated by NF-κB signaling. It was also shown that autophagy mediates the normal functioning of vessels, so its disturbance can be associated with vessel-related disorders. Early brain injury, delayed brain injury, and associated cerebral vasospasm are among the most serious consequences of IA rupture and are associated with impaired function of the autophagy⁻lysosomal system. Further studies on the role of the interplay between autophagy and NF-κB-mediated inflammation in IA can help to better understand IA pathogenesis and to identify IA patients with an increased SAH risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elzbieta Pawlowska
- Department of Orthodontics, Medical University of Lodz, 92-216 Lodz, Poland.
| | - Joanna Szczepanska
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Medical University of Lodz, 92-216 Lodz, Poland.
| | - Karol Wisniewski
- Department of Neurosurgery and Neurooncology, Medical University of Lodz, Barlicki University Hospital, Kopcinskiego 22, 90-153 Lodz, Poland.
| | - Paulina Tokarz
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, 90-236 Lodz, Poland.
| | - Dariusz J Jaskólski
- Department of Neurosurgery and Neurooncology, Medical University of Lodz, Barlicki University Hospital, Kopcinskiego 22, 90-153 Lodz, Poland.
| | - Janusz Blasiak
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, 90-236 Lodz, Poland.
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22
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Lv DL, Chen L, Ding W, Zhang W, Wang HL, Wang S, Liu WB. Ginsenoside G-Rh2 synergizes with SMI-4a in anti-melanoma activity through autophagic cell death. Chin Med 2018; 13:11. [PMID: 29483938 PMCID: PMC5820787 DOI: 10.1186/s13020-018-0168-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2018] [Accepted: 02/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Melanoma is a leading cause of cancer death worldwide, and SMI-4a and G-Rh2 exert anti-tumor activity in multiple cancer. However, SMI-4a as well as a synergistic relationship between SMI-4a and G-Rh2 in anti-melanoma capacity are still unknown. Therefore, we investigated the effects of SMI-4a and combined SMI-4a with G-Rh2 on the viability, apoptosis and autophagy of melanoma, and to preliminarily explore the underlying mechanism of SMI-4a and combined SMI-4a with G-Rh2 in inhibiting tumor growth. Methods Cell viability was examined with cell counting Kit 8 assay and colony formation assay; Apoptosis was evaluated by flow cytometry and Caspase 3/7 activity assay; Western blotting was used to test proteins related to autophagy and the AKT/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway; Tumor xenograft model in BALB/c nude mice was performed to evaluate the effects of SMI-4a and combined SMI-4a with G-Rh2 in anti-melanoma in vivo. Results SMI-4a, a pharmacological inhibitor of PIM-1, could decrease cell viability, induce apoptosis, and promote Caspase 3/7 activity in both A375 and G361 melanoma cells, and SMI-4a inhibited tumor growth by inducing autophagy via down-regulating AKT/mTOR axis in melanoma cells. Furthermore, G-Rh2 amplified the anti-tumor activity of SMI-4a in melanoma cells via strengthening autophagy. Conclusions Our results suggested that SMI-4a could enhance autophagy-inducing apoptosis by inhibiting AKT/mTOR signaling pathway in melanoma cells, and G-Rh2 could enhance the effects of SMI-4a against melanoma cancer via amplifying autophagy induction. This study demonstrates that combined SMI-4a and G-Rh2 might be a novel alternative strategy for melanoma treatment. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13020-018-0168-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Da-Lun Lv
- 1Department of Burn and Plastic Surgery, First Affiliated Hospital of Wannan Medical College, Jinghu District, Wuhu, 241000 Anhui China
| | - Lei Chen
- 1Department of Burn and Plastic Surgery, First Affiliated Hospital of Wannan Medical College, Jinghu District, Wuhu, 241000 Anhui China
| | - Wei Ding
- 1Department of Burn and Plastic Surgery, First Affiliated Hospital of Wannan Medical College, Jinghu District, Wuhu, 241000 Anhui China
| | - Wei Zhang
- 1Department of Burn and Plastic Surgery, First Affiliated Hospital of Wannan Medical College, Jinghu District, Wuhu, 241000 Anhui China
| | - He-Li Wang
- 1Department of Burn and Plastic Surgery, First Affiliated Hospital of Wannan Medical College, Jinghu District, Wuhu, 241000 Anhui China
| | - Shuai Wang
- 1Department of Burn and Plastic Surgery, First Affiliated Hospital of Wannan Medical College, Jinghu District, Wuhu, 241000 Anhui China
| | - Wen-Bei Liu
- 2Dermatological Department, First Affiliated Hospital of Wannan Medical College, Jinghu District, Wuhu, 241000 Anhui China
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23
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He S, Li Q, Jiang X, Lu X, Feng F, Qu W, Chen Y, Sun H. Design of Small Molecule Autophagy Modulators: A Promising Druggable Strategy. J Med Chem 2017; 61:4656-4687. [PMID: 29211480 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.7b01019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Autophagy is a lysosome-dependent mechanism of intracellular degradation for maintaining cellular homeostasis. Dysregulation of autophagy has been verified to be closely linked to a number of human diseases. Consequently, targeting autophagy has been highlighted as a novel therapeutic strategy for clinical utility. Mounting efforts have been done in recent years to elucidate the mechanisms of autophagy regulation and to identify potential modulators of autophagy. However, most of the compounds target complex and multifaceted pathway and proteins, which may limit the evaluation of therapeutic value and in depth studies as chemical tools. Therefore, the development of specific and active autophagy modulators becomes most desirable. Here, we briefly review the regulation of autophagy and then summarize the recent development of small molecules targeting the core autophagic machinery. Finally, we put forward our viewpoints on the current problems, with the aim to provide reference for future drug discovery and potential therapeutic perspectives on novel, potent, selective autophagy modulators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siyu He
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry , China Pharmaceutical University , Nanjing 210009 , China
| | - Qi Li
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry , China Pharmaceutical University , Nanjing 210009 , China
| | - Xueyang Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Biomedical Functional Materials, School of Science , China Pharmaceutical University , Nanjing 211198 , China
| | - Xin Lu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry , China Pharmaceutical University , Nanjing 210009 , China
| | - Feng Feng
- Key Laboratory of Biomedical Functional Materials, School of Science , China Pharmaceutical University , Nanjing 211198 , China
| | - Wei Qu
- Key Laboratory of Biomedical Functional Materials, School of Science , China Pharmaceutical University , Nanjing 211198 , China
| | - Yao Chen
- School of Pharmacy , Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine , Nanjing , 210023 , China
| | - Haopeng Sun
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry , China Pharmaceutical University , Nanjing 210009 , China
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24
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Friend or foe? Mitochondria as a pharmacological target in cancer treatment. Future Med Chem 2017; 9:2197-2210. [PMID: 29182013 DOI: 10.4155/fmc-2017-0110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria have acquired numerous functions over the course of evolution, such as those involved in controlling energy production, cellular metabolism, cell survival, apoptosis and autophagy within host cells. Tumor cells can develop defects in mitochondrial function, presenting a potential strategy for designing selective anticancer therapies. Therefore, cancer has been the main focus of recent research to uncover possible mitochondrial targets for therapeutic benefit. This comprehensive review covers not only the recent discoveries of the roles of mitochondria in cancer development, progression and therapeutic implications but also the findings regarding emerging mitochondrial therapeutic targets and mitochondria-targeted agents. Current challenges and future directions for developments and applications of mitochondrial-targeted therapeutics are also discussed.
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25
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Teng Y, Cai Y, Pi W, Gao L, Shay C. Augmentation of the anticancer activity of CYT997 in human prostate cancer by inhibiting Src activity. J Hematol Oncol 2017; 10:118. [PMID: 28606127 PMCID: PMC5469135 DOI: 10.1186/s13045-017-0485-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2017] [Accepted: 06/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Abnormalities of tubulin polymerization and microtubule assembly are often seen in cancer, which make them very suitable targets for the development of therapeutic approach against rapidly dividing and aggressive cancer cells. CYT997 is a novel microtubule-disrupting agent with anticancer activity in multiple cancer types including prostate cancer. However, the molecular mechanisms of action of CYT997 in prostate cancer have not been well characterized. Methods Src knockdown cells were achieved by lentiviral-mediated interference. The drug effects on cell proliferation were measured by MTS. The drug effects on cell viability and death were determined by Cell Titer-Glo® Luminescent cell viability kit and flow cytometry with Zombie Aqua™ staining. The drug effects on apoptosis were assessed by Cell Death Detection Elisa kit and Western blot with a cleaved PARP antibody. The drug effects on cell invasion were examined by Matrigel-coated Boyden chambers. Oxidative stress was detected by DCFH-DA staining and electrochemical biosensor. Mouse models generated by subcutaneous or intracardiac injection were used to investigate the in vivo drug efficacy in tumor growth and metastasis. Results CYT997 effectively inhibited proliferation, survival, and invasion of prostate cancer cells via blocking multiple oncogenic signaling cascades but not the Src pathway. Inhibition of Src expression by small hairpin RNA or inactivation of Src by dasatinib increased the CYT997-induced cytotoxicity of in vitro. Moreover, the combination of dasatinib and CYT997 exhibited a superior inhibitory effect on tumor growth and metastasis compared with either of the drugs alone. Conclusion Our findings demonstrate that blockage of Src augments the anticancer effect of CYT997 on prostate cancer and suggest that co-treatment of dasatinib and CYT997 may represent an effective therapeutic regimen for limiting prostate cancer. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13045-017-0485-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Teng
- Department of Oral Biology, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA. .,Georgia Cancer Center, Augusta University, 1120 15th Street, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA. .,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA.
| | - Yafei Cai
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Wenhu Pi
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA.,Department of Radiation Oncology, Indiana University, Indianapolis, IN, 46202, USA
| | - Lixia Gao
- Department of Oral Biology, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA
| | - Chloe Shay
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory Children's Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
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