Recent advances in ophthalmic drug delivery

From Preformulative Design to In Vivo Tests: A Complex Path of Requisites and Studies for Nanoparticle Ocular Application. Part 1: Design, Characterization, and Preliminary In Vitro Studies

Ocular pathologies are widely diffused worldwide, and their effective treatment, combined with a high patient compliance, is sometimes challenging to achieve due to the barriers of the eye; in this context, the use of nanoparticles for topical ophthalmic application could represent a successful strategy. Aiming to develop nanoplatforms with potential clinical applications, great attention has to be paid to their features, in relation to the route of administration and to the pharmacopoeial requirements. This review (part 1) thus embraces the preliminary steps of nanoparticle development and characterization. At the beginning, the main barriers of the eye and the different administration routes are resumed, followed by a general description of the advantages of the employment of nanoparticles for ocular topical administration. Subsequently, the preformulative steps are discussed, deepening the choice of raw materials and determining the quantitative composition. Then, a detailed report of the physicochemical and technological characterization of nanoparticles is presented, analyzing the most relevant tests that should be performed on nanoparticles to verify their properties and the requisites (both mandatory and suggested) demanded by regulatory agencies. In conclusion, some preliminary noncellular in vitro evaluation methods are described. Studies from in vitro cellular assays to in vivo tests will be discussed in a separate (part 2) review paper. Hence, this overview aims to offer a comprehensive tool to guide researchers in the choice of the most relevant studies to develop a nanoplatform for ophthalmic drug administration.

Drug Delivery Systems for Glaucoma: A Narrative Review

Glaucoma is one of the world's leading causes of blindness, and its management is challenging. The main objective is to lower intraocular pressure through medical, para-surgical, and surgical therapy. Medical therapy often represents the first line of treatment. Although effective in many cases, the eye drops are accompanied by significant problems. They require high patient compliance and can be associated with various side effects, limiting their efficacy. Consequently, the research for new drug delivery systems trying to overcome these limitations is ongoing: numerous devices are developing and gradually entering clinical practice. These new therapeutic options may offer better control of the intraocular pressure, with fewer side effects, and are less dependent on patients' compliance. Hence, the research in this field continues to flourish. This review summarizes the most recent findings in the scientific literature, underlines the role and possible limitations of the new glaucoma drug delivery systems in clinical practice, and recognizes their new horizons and perspectives.

Recent updates on ocular disease management with ophthalmic ointments

Ophthalmic diseases can result in permanent vision loss and blindness. Convenient topical and systemic treatments are preferred to address these sight-threatening conditions. However, the unique anatomy of the eye presents challenges for drug delivery. Various ophthalmic ointment formulations have been developed to enhance bioavailability in the eye to prolong residence time and improve corneal permeability. This article explores a wide range of ocular diseases affecting individuals globally and how ointments are used to manage them. From eye to ocular barriers, this review focuses on published scientific research and formulation strategies for severe ocular complications using conventional topical ointments. Additionally, it delves through patented technologies and marketed formulations supporting the use of ointments in ocular drug delivery.

Advances in the Application of Microneedles in the Treatment of Local Organ Diseases

In recent years, microneedles (MNs) have attracted a lot of attention due to their microscale sizes and high surface area (500-1000 µm in length), allowing pain-free and efficient drug delivery through the skin. In addition to the great success of MNs based transdermal drug delivery, especially for skin diseases, increasing studies have indicated the expansion of MNs to diverse nontransdermal applications, including the delivery of therapeutics for hair loss, ocular diseases, and oral mucosal. Here, the current treatment of hair loss, eye diseases, and oral disease is discussed and an overview of recent advances in the application of MNs is provided for these three noncutaneous localized organ diseases. Particular emphasis is laid on the future trend of MNs technology development and future challenges of expanding the generalizability of MNs.

Pharmaceutical In Situ Gel for Glaucoma: Recent Trends and Development with an Update on Research and Patents

Glaucoma is a progressive visual polyneuropathy characterized by retinal ganglion cell atrophy and optic nerve head changes. It's generally triggered due to increased intraocular pressure compared with the healthy eye. Glaucoma is treated with various medications in traditional eye drops, such as prostaglandins, carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, beta-blockers, and others. Such treatments are difficult to use and produce lachrymal leakage and inadequate corneal permeability, resulting in lower availability. Ophthalmic in situ gels, introduced in past decades with tremendous effort, are among the finest various choices to solve the drawbacks of eye drops. Employing different polymers with pH-triggered, temperature-triggered, and ion-activated processes have been used to generate ophthalmic in situ gelling treatments. Once those preparations are delivered into the eye, they change phase from sol to gel, allowing the medicine to stay in the eye for longer. These formulations are known as smart gels as they turn into gelling fluids when administered into the eyes. The different mechanisms of in situ gel formulations are used for the management of glaucoma and are discussed in this review article.

Recent advances in uveitis therapy: focus on selected phase 2 and 3 clinical trials

INTRODUCTION

Uveitis is a heterogeneous group of ocular conditions characterized by inflammation of the uveal tract. It is a leading cause of blindness in developed countries and exerts significant psychological, social, and economic impact on both patients and the larger society. While there are numerous pharmacotherapy options, posterior segment noninfectious uveitis remains a significant challenge to treat due to its severity, chronicity, and high recurrence rates.

AREAS COVERED

The index review highlights the unmet needs of uveitis pharmacotherapy and its research and the shortcomings of existing ocular and systemic therapeutic options for noninfectious uveitis. The more promising novel ocular drug delivery methods and therapeutic targets/drugs are discussed, and evidence from the clinical trials is evaluated.

EXPERT OPINION

There has been incredible growth in the number of treatment options available to uveitis patients today, especially with the new generation of biologic drugs. Available evidence suggests that these newer options may be superior to conventional immunosuppressive therapies in terms of efficacy and side effect profiles. Further high-quality research and additional clinical trials will be needed to clarify their roles in the stepladder treatment approach of noninfectious uveitis.

Advanced drug delivery and therapeutic strategies for tuberculosis treatment

Tuberculosis (TB) remains a significant global health challenge, necessitating innovative approaches for effective treatment. Conventional TB therapy encounters several limitations, including extended treatment duration, drug resistance, patient noncompliance, poor bioavailability, and suboptimal targeting. Advanced drug delivery strategies have emerged as a promising approach to address these challenges. They have the potential to enhance therapeutic outcomes and improve TB patient compliance by providing benefits such as multiple drug encapsulation, sustained release, targeted delivery, reduced dosing frequency, and minimal side effects. This review examines the current landscape of drug delivery strategies for effective TB management, specifically highlighting lipid nanoparticles, polymer nanoparticles, inorganic nanoparticles, emulsion-based systems, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and hydrogels as promising approaches. Furthermore, emerging therapeutic strategies like targeted therapy, long-acting therapeutics, extrapulmonary therapy, phototherapy, and immunotherapy are emphasized. The review also discusses the future trajectory and challenges of developing drug delivery systems for TB. In conclusion, nanomedicine has made substantial progress in addressing the challenges posed by conventional TB drugs. Moreover, by harnessing the unique targeting abilities, extended duration of action, and specificity of advanced therapeutics, innovative solutions are offered that have the potential to revolutionize TB therapy, thereby enhancing treatment outcomes and patient compliance.

Update on current pharmacologic therapies for diabetic retinopathy

INTRODUCTION

Diabetic retinopathy is a major cause of visual loss worldwide. The most important clinical findings include diabetic macular edema (DME) and proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR).

AREAS COVERED

PubMed was used for our literature review. Articles from 1995 to 2023 were included. Pharmacologic treatment of diabetic retinopathy generally involves the use of intravitreal anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) therapy for DME and PDR. Corticosteroids remain important second-line therapies for patients with DME. Most emerging therapies focus on newly identified inflammatory mediators and biochemical signaling pathways involved in disease pathogenesis.

EXPERT OPINION

Emerging anti-VEGF modalities, integrin antagonists, and anti-inflammatory agents have the potential to improve outcomes with reduced treatment burdens.

Suprachoroidal Injection: A Novel Approach for Targeted Drug Delivery

Treating posterior segment and retinal diseases poses challenges due to the complex structures in the eye that act as robust barriers, limiting medication delivery and bioavailability. This necessitates frequent dosing, typically via eye drops or intravitreal injections, to manage diseases, often leading to side effects with long-term use. Suprachoroidal injection is a novel approach for targeted drug delivery to the posterior segment. The suprachoroidal space is the region between the sclera and the choroid and provides a potential route for minimally invasive medication delivery. Through a more targeted delivery to the posterior segment, this method offers advantages over other routes of administration, such as higher drug concentrations, increased bioavailability, and prolonged duration of action. Additionally, this approach minimizes the risk of corticosteroid-related adverse events such as cataracts and intraocular pressure elevation via compartmentalization. This review focuses on preclinical and clinical studies published between 2019 and 2023, highlighting the potential of suprachoroidal injection in treating a variety of posterior segment diseases. However, to fully harness its potential, more research is needed to address current challenges and limitations, such as the need for technological advancements, refinement of injection techniques, and consideration of cost and accessibility factors. Future studies exploring its use in conjunction with biotech products, gene therapies, and cell-based therapies can lead to personalized treatments that can revolutionize the field of ophthalmology.

Therapeutic contact lenses for the treatment of corneal and ocular surface diseases: advances in extended and targeted drug delivery

The eye is one of the most important organs in the human body providing critical information on the environment. Many corneal diseases can lead to vision loss affecting the lives of people around the world. Ophthalmic drug delivery has always been a major challenge in the medical sciences. Since traditional methods are less efficient (∼ 5%) at delivering drugs to ocular tissues, contact lenses have generated growing interest in ocular drug delivery due to their potential to enhance drug bioavailability in ocular tissues. The main techniques used to achieve sustained release are discussed in this review, including soaking in drug solutions, incorporating drug into multilayered contact lenses, use of vitamin E barriers, molecular imprinting, nanoparticles, micelles and liposomes. The most clinically relevant results on different eye pathologies are presented. In addition, this review summarizes the benefits of contact lenses over eye drops, strategies for incorporating drugs into lenses to achieve sustained release, results of in vitro and in vivo studies, and the recent advances in the commercialization of therapeutic contact lenses for allergic conjunctivitis.

Intraocular delivery considerations of ocular biologic products and key preclinical determinations

INTRODUCTION

Ophthalmic diseases of the retina are a significant cause of vision loss globally. Despite much progress, there remains an unmet need for durable, long-acting treatment options. While biologic therapies show great promise, they present many challenges, including complexities in biochemical properties, mechanism of action, manufacturing considerations, preclinical evaluation, and delivery mechanism; these are confounded by the unique anatomy and physiology of the eye itself.

AREAS COVERED

This review describes the current development status of intravitreally administered drugs for the treatment of ophthalmic disease, outlines the range of approaches that can be considered for sustained drug delivery to the eye, and discusses key preclinical considerations for the evaluation of ocular biologics.

EXPERT OPINION

The required frequency of dosing in the eye results in a great burden on both patients and the health care system, with direct intraocular administration remaining the most reliable and predictable route. Sustained and controlled ophthalmic drug delivery systems will go a long way in reducing this burden. Sustained delivery can directly dose target tissues, improving bioavailability and reducing off-target systemic effects. Maintaining stability and activity of compounds can prevent aggregation and enable extended duration of release, while sustaining dosage and preventing residual polymer after drug depletion.

Preparation and performance of latanoprost-loaded hydrogels as a lacrimal suppository for the treatment of glaucoma

Glaucoma is the leading cause of irreversible blindness, and its treatment is attracting widespread attention. Drug-loaded lacrimal suppositories can effectively treat xerophthalmia, but there is little research on the treatment of glaucoma with drug-loaded lacrimal suppositories. This article explored and expanded the non-pharmacological model of lacrimal suppository therapy for glaucoma by using a combination of lacrimal suppository and medication. The drug-loaded lacrimal suppository was rationally designed through the conjugation of gelatin with polyamide (PAM) via the formation of amide linkages, followed by Schiff base reaction grafting with latanoprost. In vitro drug release studies showed that latanoprost released from drug-loaded lacrimal embolus had sustained-release properties with a release time of 33 days and a drug release volume of 82.6%. The biological evaluation of drug-loaded lacrimal thrombus was carried out by IOP test, retinal potential test, and retinal H&E staining. The results showed that the IOP decreased to 27.125 ± 1.1254 mmHg, and the a and b waves of retinal potential increased to 4.39 ± 0.16 μV and 67.9 ± 2.17 μV, respectively. It indicated that latanoprost lacrimal suppository has a good therapeutic effect on glaucoma.

Cell-mimicking polyethylene glycol-diacrylate based nanolipogel for encapsulation and delivery of hydrophilic biomolecule

Lipid based nanoparticulate formulations have been widely used for the encapsulation and sustain release of hydrophilic drugs, but they still face challenges such as high initial burst release. Nanolipogel (NLG) emerges as a potential system to encapsulate and deliver hydrophilic drug while suppressing its initial burst release. However, there is a lack of characterization of the drug release mechanism from NLGs. In this work, we present a study on the release mechanism of hydrophilic Dextran-Fluorescein Isothiocyanate (DFITC) from Poly (ethylene glycol) Diacrylate (PEGDA) NLGs by using different molecular weights of PEGDA to vary the mesh size of the nanogel core, drawing inspiration from the macromolecular crowding effect in cells, which can be viewed as a mesh network of undefined sizes. The effect is then further characterized and validated by studying the diffusion of DFITC within the nanogel core using Fluorescence Recovery after Photobleaching (FRAP), on our newly developed cell derived microlipogels (MLG). This is in contrast to conventional FRAP works on cells or bulk hydrogels, which is limited in our application. Our work showed that the mesh size of the NLGs can be controlled by using different Mw of PEGDA, such as using a smaller MW to achieve higher crosslinking density, which will lead to having smaller mesh size for the crosslinked nanogel, and the release of hydrophilic DFITC can be sustained while suppressing the initial burst release, up to 10-fold more for crosslinked PEGDA 575 NLGs. This is further validated by FRAP which showed that the diffusion of DFITC is hindered by the decreasing mesh sizes in the NLGs, as a result of lower mobile fractions. These findings will be useful for guiding the design of PEGDA NLGs to have different degree of suppression of the initial burst release as well as the cumulative release, for a wide array of applications. This can also be extended to other different types of nanogel cores and other nanogel core-based nanoparticles for encapsulation and release of hydrophilic biomolecules.

Inflammation in diabetic retinopathy: possible roles in pathogenesis and potential implications for therapy

Diabetic retinopathy, characterized as a microangiopathy and neurodegenerative disease, is the leading cause of visual impairment in diabetic patients. Many clinical features observed in diabetic retinopathy, such as capillary occlusion, acellular capillaries and retinal non-perfusion, aggregate retinal ischemia and represent relatively late events in diabetic retinopathy. In fact, retinal microvascular injury is an early event in diabetic retinopathy involving multiple biochemical alterations, and is manifested by changes to the retinal neurovascular unit and its cellular components. Currently, intravitreal anti-vascular endothelial growth factor therapy is the first-line treatment for diabetic macular edema, and benefits the patient by decreasing the edema and improving visual acuity. However, a significant proportion of patients respond poorly to anti-vascular endothelial growth factor treatments, indicating that factors other than vascular endothelial growth factor are involved in the pathogenesis of diabetic macular edema. Accumulating evidence confirms that low-grade inflammation plays a critical role in the pathogenesis and development of diabetic retinopathy as multiple inflammatory factors, such as interleukin-1β, monocyte chemotactic protein-1 and tumor necrosis factor -α, are increased in the vitreous and retina of diabetic retinopathy patients. These inflammatory factors, together with growth factors such as vascular endothelial growth factor, contribute to blood-retinal barrier breakdown, vascular damage and neuroinflammation, as well as pathological angiogenesis in diabetic retinopathy, complicated by diabetic macular edema and proliferative diabetic retinopathy. In addition, retinal cell types including microglia, Müller glia, astrocytes, retinal pigment epithelial cells, and others are activated, to secrete inflammatory mediators, aggravating cell apoptosis and subsequent vascular leakage. New therapies, targeting these inflammatory molecules or related signaling pathways, have the potential to inhibit retinal inflammation and prevent diabetic retinopathy progression. Here, we review the relevant literature to date, summarize the inflammatory mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy, and propose inflammation-based treatments for diabetic retinopathy and diabetic macular edema.

Therapeutic Ultrasound for Topical Corneal Delivery of Macromolecules

Purpose

The objective of this study was to utilize therapeutic ultrasound in enhancing delivery of topical macromolecules into the cornea.

Methods

Rabbit corneas were dissected and placed in a diffusion cell with a small ultra-red fluorescent protein (smURFP; molecular weight of 32,000 Da) as a macromolecule solution. The corneas were treated with continuous ultrasound application at frequencies of 400 or 600 kHz and intensities of 0.8 to 1.0 W/cm2 for 5 minutes, or sham-treated. Fluorescence imaging of the cornea sections was used to observe the delivery of macromolecules into individual epithelial cells. Spectrophotometric analysis at smURFP maximal absorbance of 640 nm was done to determine the presence of macromolecules in the receiver compartment. Safety of ultrasound application was studied through histology analysis.

Results

Ultrasound-treated corneas showed smURFP delivery into epithelial cells by fluorescence in the cytoplasm, whereas sham-treated corneas lacked any appreciable fluorescence in the individual cells. The sham group showed 0% of subcellular penetration, whereas the 400 kHz ultrasound-treated group and 600 kHz ultrasound-treated group showed 31% and 57% of subcellular penetration, respectively. Spectrophotometry measurements indicated negligible presence of smURFP macromolecules in the receiver compartment solution in both the sham and ultrasound treatment groups, and these macromolecules did not cross the entire depth of the cornea. Histological studies showed no significant corneal damage due to ultrasound application.

Conclusions

Therapeutic ultrasound application was shown to increase the delivery of smURFP macromolecules into the cornea.

Translational Relevance

Our study offers a clinical potential for a minimally invasive macromolecular treatment of corneal diseases.

Polymer based sustained drug delivery to the ocular posterior segment: barriers and future opportunities for the treatment of neovascular pathologies

There is an increasing momentum in research and pharmaceutical industry communities to design sustained, non-invasive delivery systems to treat chronic neovascular ocular diseases that affect the posterior segment of the eye including age-related macular degeneration and diabetic retinopathy. Current treatments include VEGF blockers, which have revolutionized the standard of care for patients, but their maximum therapeutic benefit is hampered by the need for recurrent and invasive administration procedures. Currently approved delivery systems intended to address these limitations exploit polymer technology to regulate drug release in a sustained manner. Here, we critically review sustained drug delivery approaches for the treatment of chronic neovascular diseases affecting the ocular posterior segment, with a special emphasis on novel and polymeric technologies spanning the spectrum of preclinical and clinical investigation, and those approved for treatment. The mechanism by which each formulation imparts sustained release, the impact of formulation characteristics on release and foreign body reaction, and special considerations related to the translation of these systems are discussed.

Chitosan Nanoparticles for Meloxicam Ocular Delivery: Development, In Vitro Characterization, and In Vivo Evaluation in a Rabbit Eye Model

Eye inflammation is considered one of the most common co-morbidities associated with ocular disorders and surgeries. Conventional management of this condition with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs as eye drops is associated with low corneal bioavailability and ocular irritancy. In the current study, we first investigated the capacity of different solvent systems to enhance the solubility of Meloxicam (MLX). Then, we prepared chitosan nanoparticles loaded with meloxicam (MLX-CS-NPs) through electrostatic interaction between the cationic chitosan and the anionic MLX using either 100% v/v polyethylene glycol 400 or 0.25% w/v tripolyphosphate solution as solvents based on the MLX solubility data. In further studies, MLX-CS-NPs were characterized in vitro and assessed for their ex vivo corneal and scleral permeability. The morphology, average particle size (195–597 nm), zeta potential (25–54 mV), and percent entrapment efficiencies (70–96%) of the prepared MLX-CS-NPs were evaluated. The in vitro release study of MLX from the selected MLX-CS-NPs showed a sustained drug release for 72 h with accepted flux and permeation through the cornea and sclera of rabbits. In the in vivo studies, MLX-CS-NPs eye drop dispersion showed enhanced anti-inflammatory activity and no ocular irritancy compared to MLX-eye drop solution. Our findings suggest the potential for using chitosan nanotechnology for ocular delivery of MLX with high contact time and activity.

Recent Fabrication Methods to Produce Polymer-Based Drug Delivery Matrices (Experimental and In Silico Approaches)

The study of novel drug delivery systems represents one of the frontiers of the biomedical research area. Multi-disciplinary scientific approaches combining traditional or engineered technologies are used to provide major advances in improving drug bioavailability, rate of release, cell/tissue specificity and therapeutic index. Biodegradable and bio-absorbable polymers are usually the building blocks of these systems, and their copolymers are employed to create delivery components. For example, poly (lactic acid) or poly (glycolic acid) are often used as bricks for the production drug-based delivery systems as polymeric microparticles (MPs) or micron-scale needles. To avoid time-consuming empirical approaches for the optimization of these formulations, in silico-supported models have been developed. These methods can predict and tune the release of different drugs starting from designed combinations. Starting from these considerations, this review has the aim of investigating recent approaches to the production of polymeric carriers and the combination of in silico and experimental methods as promising platforms in the biomedical field.

Recent Developments of Nanostructures for the Ocular Delivery of Natural Compounds

Ocular disorders comprising various diseases of the anterior and posterior segments are considered as the main reasons for blindness. Natural products have been identified as potential treatments for ocular diseases due to their anti-oxidative, antiangiogenic, and anti-inflammatory effects. Unfortunately, most of these beneficial compounds are characterised by low solubility which results in low bioavailability and rapid systemic clearance thus requiring frequent administration or requiring high doses, which hinders their therapeutic applications. Additionally, the therapeutic efficiency of ocular drug delivery as a popular route of drug administration for the treatment of ocular diseases is restricted by various anatomical and physiological barriers. Recently, nanotechnology-based strategies including polymeric nanoparticles, micelles, nanofibers, dendrimers, lipid nanoparticles, liposomes, and niosomes have emerged as promising approaches to overcome limitations and enhance ocular drug bioavailability by effective delivery to the target sites. This review provides an overview of nano-drug delivery systems of natural compounds such as thymoquinone, catechin, epigallocatechin gallate, curcumin, berberine, pilocarpine, genistein, resveratrol, quercetin, naringenin, lutein, kaempferol, baicalin, and tetrandrine for ocular applications. This approach involves increasing drug concentration in the carriers to enhance drug movement into and through the ocular barriers.

Molecularly imprinted polymers: preparation, characterisation, and application in drug delivery systems

Molecular imprinting technology defines the creation of molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) molecules in which template molecules can place in a key-lock relationship through shape, diameter, and functional groups. Although molecular imprinting technology has been employed in different fields, its applications in drug delivery systems (DDSs) have gained momentum recently. The high loading efficiency, high stability, and controlled drug release are the primary advantages of MIPs. Here, the main components, preparation methods, and characterisation tests of MIPs are summarised, and their applications in DDSs administered by different routes are evaluated in detail. The review offers a perspective on molecular imprinting technology and applications of MIPs in drug delivery by surveying the literature approximately 1998-2021 together with the outlined prospects.

Considerations for Polymers Used in Ocular Drug Delivery

PURPOSE

Age-related eye diseases are becoming more prevalent. A notable increase has been seen in the most common causes including glaucoma, age-related macular degeneration (AMD), and cataract. Current clinical treatments vary from tissue replacement with polymers to topical eye drops and intravitreal injections. Research and development efforts have increased using polymers for sustained release to the eye to overcome treatment challenges, showing promise in improving drug release and delivery, patient experience, and treatment compliance. Polymers provide unique properties that allow for specific engineered devices to provide improved treatment options. Recent work has shown the utilization of synthetic and biopolymer derived biomaterials in various forms, with this review containing a focus on polymers Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved for ocular use.

METHODS

This provides an overview of some prevalent synthetic polymers and biopolymers used in ocular delivery and their benefits, brief discussion of the various types and synthesis methods used, and administration techniques. Polymers approved by the FDA for different applications in the eye are listed and compared to new polymers being explored in the literature. This article summarizes research findings using polymers for ocular drug delivery from various stages: laboratory, preclinical studies, clinical trials, and currently approved. This review also focuses on some of the challenges to bringing these new innovations to the clinic, including limited selection of approved polymers.

RESULTS

Polymers help improve drug delivery by increasing solubility, controlling pharmacokinetics, and extending release. Several polymer classes including synthetic, biopolymer, and combinations were discussed along with the benefits and challenges of each class. The ways both polymer synthesis and processing techniques can influence drug release in the eye were discussed.

CONCLUSION

The use of biomaterials, specifically polymers, is a well-studied field for drug delivery, and polymers have been used as implants in the eye for over 75 years. Promising new ocular drug delivery systems are emerging using polymers an innovative option for treating ocular diseases because of their tunable properties. This review touches on important considerations and challenges of using polymers for sustained ocular drug delivery with the goal translating research to the clinic.

Ocular Fluid Mechanics and Drug Delivery: A Review of Mathematical and Computational Models

The human eye is a complex biomechanical structure with a range of biomechanical processes involved in various physiological as well as pathological conditions. Fluid flow inside different domains of the eye is one of the most significant biomechanical processes that tend to perform a wide variety of functions and when combined with other biophysical processes play a crucial role in ocular drug delivery. However, it is quite difficult to comprehend the effect of these processes on drug transport and associated treatment experimentally because of ethical constraints and economic feasibility. Computational modeling on the other hand is an excellent means to understand the associated complexity between these aforementioned processes and drug delivery. A wide range of computational models specific to different types of fluids present in different domains of the eye as well as varying drug delivery modes has been established to understand the fluid flow behavior and drug transport phenomenon in an insilico manner. These computational models have been used as a non-invasive tool to aid ophthalmologists in identifying the challenges associated with a particular drug delivery mode while treating particular eye diseases and to advance the understanding of the biomechanical behavior of the eye. In this regard, the author attempts to summarize the existing computational and mathematical approaches proposed in the last two decades for understanding the fluid mechanics and drug transport associated with different domains of the eye, together with their application to modify the existing treatment processes.

Eyes on Lipinski's Rule of Five: A New "Rule of Thumb" for Physicochemical Design Space of Ophthalmic Drugs

The study objective was to investigate molecular thermodynamic properties of approved ophthalmic drugs and derive a framework outlining physicochemical design space for product development. Unlike the methodology used to obtain molecular descriptors for assessment of drug-like properties by Lipinski's Rule of 5 (Ro5), this work presents a retrospective approach based on in silico analysis of molecular thermodynamic properties beyond Ro5 parameters (ie, free energy of distribution/partitioning in octanol/water, dynamic polar surface area, distribution coefficient, and solubility at physiological pH) by using 145 marketed ophthalmic drugs. The study's focus was to delineate inherent molecular parameters explicitly important for ocular permeability and absorption from topical eye drops. A comprehensive parameter distribution analysis on ophthalmic drugs’ molecular properties was performed. Frequencies in distribution analyses provided groundwork for physicochemical parameter limits of molecular thermodynamic properties having impact on corneal permeability and topical ophthalmic drug delivery. These parameters included free energy of partitioning (ΔG_o/w) calculated based on thermodynamic free energy equation, distribution coefficient at physiological pH (clog D_pH7.4), topological polar surface area (TPSA), and aqueous solubility (S_int, S_pH7.4) with boundaries of clog D_pH7.4 ≤4.0, TPSA ≤250 Ų, ΔG_o/w ≤20 kJ/mol (4.8 kcal/mol), and solubility (S_int and S_pH7.4) ≥1 μM, respectively. The theoretical free energy of partitioning model streamlined calculation of changes in the free energy of partitioning, Δ(ΔG_o/w), as a measure of incremental improvements in corneal permeability for congeneric series. The above parameter limits are proposed as “rules of thumb” for topical ophthalmic drugs to assess risks in developability.

Feasibility of Therapeutic Ultrasound Application in Topical Scleral Delivery of Avastin

Purpose

Macromolecules have been shown to be effective in vision-saving treatments for various ocular diseases, such as age-related macular degeneration and diabetic retinopathy. The current delivery of macromolecules requires frequent intraocular injections and carries a risk of serious adverse effects.

Methods

We tested the application of therapeutic ultrasound as a minimally invasive approach for the delivery of Avastin into the diseased regions of the eye. Avastin (bevacizumab) is an anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) antibody with a molecular weight of 149 kDa. We tested the effectiveness and safety of Avastin delivery through rabbit sclera in vitro using a standard diffusion cell model. Ultrasound at frequencies of 400 kHz or 3 MHz with an intensity of 1 W/cm2 was applied for the first 5 minutes of 1-hour drug exposure. Sham treatments mimicked the ultrasound treatments, but ultrasound was not turned on. Absorbance measurements of the receiver compartment solution were performed at 280 nm using a spectrophotometer.

Results

Absorbance measurements indicated no statistical difference between the sham (n = 13) and 400 kHz ultrasound group (n = 15) in the delivery of Avastin through the sclera. However, the absorbance values were statistically different (P < 0.01) between the 3 MHz ultrasound group (0.004, n = 8) and the matched sham group (0.002, n = 7). There was 2.3 times increase in drug delivery in the 3 MHz ultrasound when compared to the corresponding sham group. Histological studies indicated no significant damage in the ultrasound-treated sclera due to ultrasound application.

Conclusions

Our preliminary results provided support that therapeutic ultrasound may be effective in the delivery of Avastin through the sclera.

Translational Relevance

Our study offers clinical potential for a minimally invasive retinopathy treatment.

Therapeutic Ultrasound-Enhanced Transcorneal PHMB Delivery In Vitro

OBJECTIVE

Delivery of therapeutic agents to the cornea is a difficult task in the treatment of parasitic keratitis. In this study, we looked at using different combinations of ultrasound parameters to enhance corneal permeability to polyhexamethylene biguanide (PHMB), a clinically available ophthalmic antiparasitic formulation.

METHODS

Permeability of PHMB was investigated in vitro using a standard diffusion cell setup. Continuous or 25% duty-cycle ultrasound was used at frequencies of 400 or 600 kHz, intensities of 0.5 or 0.8 W/cm² , and exposure times ranging from 1 to 5 minutes. Structural changes in the cornea were examined using light microscopy.

RESULTS

Ultrasound exposure produced increases in transcorneal delivery in every treatment parameter combination when compared to the sham treatment. The highest increase was 2.36 times for 5 minutes of continuous ultrasound at a frequency of 600 kHz and an intensity of 0.5 W/cm² with statistical significance (p <.001). Histological analysis showed that ultrasound application only caused structural changes in the corneal epithelium, with most damage being at the surface layers.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests the possibility of therapeutic ultrasound as a novel drug delivery technique for the treatment of parasitic keratitis. Further studies are needed to examine the thermal effects of these proposed ultrasound applications and the long-term viability of this treatment.

Nanotechnology for Topical Drug Delivery to the Anterior Segment of the Eye

Topical drug delivery is one of the most challenging aspects of eye therapy. Eye drops are the most prevalent drug form, especially for widely distributed anterior segment eye diseases (cataracts, glaucoma, dry eye syndrome, inflammatory diseases, etc.), because they are convenient and easy to apply by patients. However, conventional drug formulations are usually characterized by short retention time in the tear film, insufficient contact with epithelium, fast elimination, and difficulties in overcoming ocular tissue barriers. Not more than 5% of the total drug dose administered in eye drops reaches the interior ocular tissues. To overcome the ocular drug delivery barriers and improve drug bioavailability, various conventional and novel drug delivery systems have been developed. Among these, nanosize carriers are the most attractive. The review is focused on the different drug carriers, such as synthetic and natural polymers, as well as inorganic carriers, with special attention to nanoparticles and nanomicelles. Studies in vitro and in vivo have demonstrated that new formulations could help to improve the bioavailability of the drugs, provide sustained drug release, enhance and prolong their therapeutic action. Promising results were obtained with drug-loaded nanoparticles included in in situ gel.

Challenges in setting Permitted Daily Exposure (PDE) Limits for pharmaceuticals: A review

BACKGROUND

When more than one drug is manufactured at a shared facility or equipment in pharmaceutical manufacturing, the potential carry-over of the retained residue of existing drug product on product contact parts of the equipment to the next product can be a source of cross contamination. Permitted daily exposure (PDE) is derived based on the complete nonclinical and clinical data available and is a dose that is unlikely to cause adverse effects if an individual is exposed, by any route, at or below this dose every day over a lifetime.

OBJECTIVE

The objective was to present a comprehensive review of available scientific knowledge for derivation of PDE.

METHODS

PubMed and ScienceDirect databases were searched using keywords "PDE" and "pharmaceuticals" and all the relevant literature up to March 2021 was reviewed. We have also calculated PDEs for Tobramycin (CAS No. 32986-56-4) and Acetyl Salicylic Acid (ASA, CAS No. 50-78-2).

RESULTS

This research will be useful for scientists working in the PDE domain. The given examples emphasize the importance of use of human data in calculating PDE.

CONCLUSION

The duty of the risk assessor entrusted with setting PDEs is to derive a data driven, scientifically justified value that is safe for patients, while avoiding unjustified conservativeness that puts unnecessary burden on manufacturing.

Drug delivery to the anterior segment of the eye: A review of current and future treatment strategies

Research in the development of ophthalmic drug formulations and innovative technologies over the past few decades has been directed at improving the penetration of medications delivered to the eye. Currently, approximately 90% of all ophthalmic drug formulations (e.g. liposomes, micelles) are applied as eye drops. The major challenge of topical eye drops is low bioavailability, need for frequent instillation due to the short half-life, poor drug solubility, and potential side effects. Recent research has been focused on improving topical drug delivery devices by increasing ocular residence time, overcoming physiological and anatomical barriers, and developing medical devices and drug formulations to increase the duration of action of the active drugs. Researchers have developed innovative technologies and formulations ranging from sub-micron to macroscopic size such as prodrugs, enhancers, mucus-penetrating particles (MPPs), therapeutic contact lenses, and collagen corneal shields. Another approach towards the development of effective topical drug delivery is embedding therapeutic formulations in microdevices designed for sustained release of the active drugs. The goal is to optimize the delivery of ophthalmic medications by achieving high drug concentration with prolonged duration of action that is convenient for patients to administer.

New Therapeutic Perspectives in the Treatment of Uveal Melanoma: A Systematic Review

Uveal melanoma (UM) is a rare disease, but the most common primary intraocular cancer, mostly localized in the choroid. Currently, the first-line treatment options for UM are radiation therapy, resection, and enucleation. However, although these treatments could potentially be curative, half of all patients will develop metastatic disease, whose prognosis is still poor. Indeed, effective therapeutic options for patients with advanced or metastatic disease are still lacking. Recently, the development of new treatment modalities with a lower incidence of adverse events, a better disease control rate, and new therapeutic approaches, have merged as new potential and promising therapeutic strategies. Additionally, several clinical trials are ongoing to find new therapeutic options, mainly for those with metastatic disease. Many interventions are still in the preliminary phases of clinical development, being investigated in phase I trial or phase I/II. The success of these trials could be crucial for changing the prognosis of patients with advanced/metastatic UM. In this systematic review, we analyzed all emerging and available literature on the new perspectives in the treatment of UM and patient outcomes; furthermore, their current limitations and more common adverse events are summarized.

Cellular targets in diabetic retinopathy therapy

Despite the existence of treatment for diabetes, inadequate metabolic control triggers the appearance of chronic complications such as diabetic retinopathy. Diabetic retinopathy is considered a multifactorial disease of complex etiology in which oxidative stress and low chronic inflammation play essential roles. Chronic exposure to hyperglycemia triggers a loss of redox balance that is critical for the appearance of neuronal and vascular damage during the development and progression of the disease. Current therapies for the treatment of diabetic retinopathy are used in advanced stages of the disease and are unable to reverse the retinal damage induced by hyperglycemia. The lack of effective therapies without side effects means there is an urgent need to identify an early action capable of preventing the development of the disease and its pathophysiological consequences in order to avoid loss of vision associated with diabetic retinopathy. Therefore, in this review we propose different therapeutic targets related to the modulation of the redox and inflammatory status that, potentially, can prevent the development and progression of the disease.

Soft Contact Lenses as Drug Delivery Systems: A Review

This review describes the role of contact lenses as an innovative drug delivery system in treating eye diseases. Current ophthalmic drug delivery systems are inadequate, particularly eye drops, which allow about 95% of the active substance to be lost through tear drainage. According to the literature, many interdisciplinary studies have been carried out on the ability of contact lenses to increase the penetration of topical therapeutic agents. Contact lenses limit drug loss by releasing the medicine into two layers of tears on either side of the contact lens, eventually extending the time of contact with the ocular surface. Thanks to weighted soft contact lenses, a continuous release of the drug over an extended period is possible. This article reviewed the various techniques to deliver medications through contact lenses, examining their advantages and disadvantages. In addition, the potential of drug delivery systems based on contact lenses has been extensively studied.

Safety and efficacy of nepafenac punctal plug delivery system in controlling postoperative ocular pain and inflammation after cataract surgery

PURPOSE

To evaluate the safety and efficacy of a nepafenac punctal plug delivery system (N-PPDS) after cataract surgery.

SETTING

Three U.S. clinical sites.

DESIGN

Prospective, multicenter, randomized (2:1), parallel-arm, double-masked, placebo-controlled, phase II pilot study.

METHODS

Fifty-six subjects (aged older than 22 years) with expected postcataract correctable distance vision of 20/30 or better and lower puncta allowing dilation up to 1.0 mm received either the nepafenac (N-PPDS group; n = 38 eyes) or a placebo punctal plug delivery system (p-PPDS group; n = 18 eyes). All eyes underwent routine unilateral cataract surgery with intraocular lens implantation. The primary and secondary efficacy measures were postoperative ocular pain and inflammation, respectively.

RESULTS

There were 38 patients in the experimental N-PPDS group and 18 patients in the control group. The N-PPDS group had a significantly higher percentage of pain-free patients than that in the p-PPDS group (22/32 [69%] vs 6/16 [38%] at 3 days, P = .038; and 24/36 [67%] vs 5/16 [31%] at 7 days, P = .018). A higher percentage of patients in the N-PPDS group (15/29 [52%] vs 0/14 [0%] in p-PPDS) was pain free at all visits (P = .001). Anterior chamber cell scores were better in the N-PPDS group (patients with no anterior chamber cells: 18/36 [50%] vs 3/16 [19%] in p-PPDS; P = .034) at 7 days. The plug retention rate was 98% (55/56) at 14 days. Adverse events having a suspected relationship with the punctal plug treatment occurred in 1 case of the N-PPDS group having to do with placement and zero in the p-PPDS group.

CONCLUSIONS

The N-PPDS was safe and effective for the management of ocular pain and inflammation after cataract surgery.

Application of Dimethyl Sulfoxide as a Therapeutic Agent and Drug Vehicle for Eye Diseases

Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) is an amphipathic molecule widely used as a solvent for water-insoluble substances, cryopreserving, and cell-biological therapies. It has known properties as an inducer of cellular differentiation, a free radical scavenger, and a radioprotectant. In addition, DMSO is used for its various therapeutic and pharmaceutical properties, such as anti-inflammatory, local and systemic analgesic, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, and membrane penetration enhancement agents. DMSO treatment can be given orally, intravenously, or topically for a wide range of indications. The administration of DMSO exhibits favorable outcomes in human eye diseases with low to none observed ocular or systemic ocular toxicity. Nevertheless, DMSO is an essential and nonpatentable potential therapeutic agent that remains underexplored and ignored by pharmaceutical developers and ophthalmologists. This current review takes data from experimental and clinical studies that have been published to substantiate the potential therapeutic efficacy of DMSO and stimulate the research of its application in clinical ophthalmology. Given that DMSO is inexpensive, safe, and easily formulated into therapeutic medicinal products and conventional ophthalmological drugs, this compound should be further explored and studied in the treatment of a variety of acute and chronic ocular disorders.

Epithelial Regeneration in Human Corneas Preserved in an Active Storage Machine

Purpose

To characterize the corneal epithelium (CE) and limbal epithelium (LE) of human corneas stored in an innovative active storage machine (ASM) after a period of organ culture (OC).

Methods

Corneas unsuitable for graft and stored in a standard commercial OC medium for 2 to 5 weeks were transferred into our ASM for 14 days. The ASM actively maintained an overpressure on the endothelial side (20 mm Hg) while ensuring medium renewal. We compared three modalities of storage in the ASM's epithelial chamber: (1) alternating exposure to a supplemental hormonal epithelial medium (SHEM) and air (air-lifting), (2) continuous immersion in SHEM, and (3) continuous immersion in OC medium. Passive immersion of the whole cornea in OC medium or of the CE in SHEM with or without airlifting served as controls. Paired corneas were used for better comparability. Histology, differentiation (by immunolabeling), and ultrastructure were analyzed at the end.

Results

The ASM with air-lifting was most effective in regenerating a pluristratified and differentiated CE (apical ZO-1 and MUC16 staining and regeneration of the glycocalyx). In addition, the LE was stratified with preserved expression of ABCB5. The ASM with immersion in SHEM or OC medium gave a less stratified and differentiated CE. In the three control groups, the epithelia, when present, were paucistratified and less differentiated.

Conclusions

In human corneas previously stored in OC, the ASM regenerates a CE with differentiation characteristics close to normal.

Translational Relevance

Regeneration of the epithelium of human corneas discarded by eye banks will increase tissue availability for research.

Ophthalmic Sensors and Drug Delivery

Advances in multifunctional materials and technologies have allowed contact lenses to serve as wearable devices for continuous monitoring of physiological parameters and delivering drugs for ocular diseases. Since the tear fluids comprise a library of biomarkers, direct measurement of different parameters such as concentration of glucose, urea, proteins, nitrite, and chloride ions, intraocular pressure (IOP), corneal temperature, and pH can be carried out non-invasively using contact lens sensors. Microfluidic contact lens sensor based colorimetric sensing and liquid control mechanisms enable the wearers to perform self-examinations at home using smartphones. Furthermore, drug-laden contact lenses have emerged as delivery platforms using a low dosage of drugs with extended residence time and increased ocular bioavailability. This review provides an overview of contact lenses for ocular diagnostics and drug delivery applications. The designs, working principles, and sensing mechanisms of sensors and drug delivery systems are reviewed. The potential applications of contact lenses in point-of-care diagnostics and personalized medicine, along with the significance of integrating multiplexed sensing units together with drug delivery systems, have also been discussed.

Recent trends in drug-delivery systems for the treatment of diabetic retinopathy and associated fibrosis

Diabetic retinopathy is a frequent microvascular complication of diabetes and a major cause of visual impairment. In advanced stages, the abnormal neovascularization can lead to fibrosis and subsequent tractional retinal detachment and blindness. The low bioavailability of the drugs at the target site imposed by the anatomic and physiologic barriers within the eye, requires long term treatments with frequent injections that often compromise patient's compliance and increase the risk of developing more complications. In recent years, much effort has been put towards the development of new drug delivery platforms aiming to enhance their permeation, to prolong their retention time at the target site and to provide a sustained release with reduced toxicity and improved efficacy. This review provides an overview of the etiology and pathophysiology of diabetic retinopathy and current treatments. It addresses the specific challenges associated to the different ocular delivery routes and provides a critical review of the most recent developments made in the drug delivery field.

Extraocular, periocular, and intraocular routes for sustained drug delivery for glaucoma

Although once daily anti-glaucoma drug therapy is a current clinical reality, most therapies require multiple dosing and there is an unmet need to develop convenient, safe, and effective sustained release drug delivery systems for long-term treatment to improve patient adherence and outcomes. One of the first sustained release drug delivery systems was approved for the reduction of intraocular pressure in glaucoma patients. It is a polymeric reservoir-type insert delivery system, Ocusert™, placed under the eyelid and on the ocular surface for zero-order drug release over one week. The insert, marketed in two strengths, released pilocarpine on the eye surface. While many clinicians appreciated this drug product, it was eventually discontinued. No similar sustained release non-invasive drug delivery system has made it to the market to date for treating glaucoma. Drug delivery systems under development include punctal plugs, ring-type systems, contact lenses, implants, microspheres, nanospheres, gels, and other depot systems placed in the extraocular, periocular, or intraocular regions including intracameral, supraciliary, and intravitreal spaces. This article discusses the advantages and disadvantages of the various routes of administration and delivery systems for sustained glaucoma therapy. It also provides the reader with some examples and discussion of drug delivery systems that could potentially be applied for glaucoma treatment. Interestingly, one intracamerally injected implant, Durysta™, was approved recently for sustained intraocular pressure reduction. However, long-term acceptance of such devices has yet to be established. The ultimate success of the delivery system will depend on efficacy relative to eye drop dosing, safety, reimbursement options, and patient acceptance. Cautious development efforts are warranted considering prior failed approaches for sustained glaucoma drug delivery. Neuroprotective approaches for glaucoma therapy including cell, gene, protein, and drug-combination therapies, mostly administered intravitreally, are also rapidly progressing towards assessment in humans.

Assessment of a New Nanostructured Microemulsion System for Ocular Delivery of Sorafenib to Posterior Segment of the Eye

Eye drop formulations allowing topical treatment of retinal pathologies have long been sought as alternatives to intravitreal administration. This study aimed to assess whether a novel nanostructured microemulsions system (NaMESys) could be usefully employed to deliver sorafenib to the retina following topical instillation. NaMESys carrying 0.3% sorafenib (NaMESys-SOR) proved to be cytocompatible in vitro on rabbit corneal cells, and well-tolerated following b.i.d. ocular administration to rabbits during a 3-month study. In rats subject to retinal ischemia-reperfusion, NaMESys-SOR significantly inhibited retinal expression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα, 20.7%) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNos, 87.3%) mRNAs in comparison to controls. Similarly, in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats, NaMESys-SOR inhibited retinal expression of nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB), TNFα, insulin like growth factor 1 (IGF1), IGF1 receptor (IGF1R), vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 1 (VEGFR1) and 2 (VEGFR2) mRNAs by three-fold on average compared to controls. Furthermore, a reduction in TNFα, VEGFR1 and VEGFR2 protein expression was observed by western blot. Moreover, in mice subject to laser-induced choroidal neovascularization, NaMESys-SOR significantly inhibited neovascular lesions by 54%. In conclusion, NaMESys-SOR was shown to be a well-tolerated ophthalmic formulation able to deliver effective amounts of sorafenib to the retina, reducing proinflammatory and pro-angiogenic mediators in reliable models of proliferative retinopathies. These findings warrant further investigations on the full therapeutic potential of NaMESys-SOR eye drops, aiming to address unmet needs in the pharmacotherapy of retinal neovascular diseases.

Investigation of in vivo unscheduled DNA synthesis in rabbit corneas following instillation of genotoxic agents

PURPOSE

An unscheduled DNA synthesis (UDS) test is used for in vitro or in vivo genotoxicity evaluation. The UDS test with hepatocytes is well established; however, drug exposure levels at the application site for topically administered drugs (e.g. ophthalmic drugs) often exceed the exposure levels for systemic administration. To establish in vivo genotoxicity on the ocular surface, we performed the UDS test using rabbit corneas from eyes subjected to instillation of genotoxic agents.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Five genotoxic agents - 1,1'-dimethyl-4,4'-bipyridinium dichloride (paraquat); acridine orange; ethidium bromide; acrylamide; and 4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide (4-NQO) - were instilled once onto both eyes of male Japanese white rabbits. Physiological saline or a general vehicle for ophthalmic solution were instilled as the negative controls. Dimethyl sulfoxide was instilled as the vehicle control. Isolated corneas were incubated with tritium-labelled thymidine and the number of sparsely labelled cells (SLCs, cells undergoing UDS) was counted by autoradiography.

RESULTS

Statistically significant increases in the mean appearance rates of SLCs in the corneal epithelium were noted in paraquat-, acridine orange-, ethidium bromide-, and 4-NQO-treated eyes compared with those of the controls. These increases generally appeared in a dose-dependent manner. Acrylamide did not induce an increase in the mean appearance rates of SLCs, presumably because it caused the generation of fewer metabolites in the cornea.

CONCLUSIONS

UDS tests revealed DNA damage in the cornea epitheliums treated with well-known genotoxic agents. These results suggest that the UDS test is one of the useful tools for the assessment of in vivo genotoxicity on the ocular surface in the development of ophthalmic drugs.

Improved Ocular Bioavailability of Moxifloxacin HCl using PLGA Nanoparticles: Fabrication, Characterization, In-vitro and In-vivo Evaluation

Improving the bioavailability of a drug at the ocular surface presents a profound challenge. Due to ocular physiological barriers, conventional eye drops exhibit poor bioavailability of drugs. Sustained-release nanoparticles may improve the residence time and hence increase absorption of the drug from the corneal surface. The current study focuses on the development of a nanoparticle-based system for the ophthalmic sustained delivery of moxifloxacin, to enhance ocular retention and bioavailability of the drug. PLGA was used as the matrix-forming polymer in the nanoparticle formulation. Nanoparticles were manufactured using a double emulsion (w/o/w) solvent evaporation technique. The formulation was optimized based on physicochemical properties, including size, polydispersity index, and stability. Nanoparticles were also evaluated for in-vitro drug release and pharmacokinetic evaluation in a rabbit model. The optimized formulation exhibited a relatively high initial release rate for six hours followed by sustained release of a drug via diffusion. The in-vivo ocular tolerance studies confirmed that moxifloxacin-loaded PLGA nanoparticles were non-irritating to the eye. The pharmacokinetic studies revealed that the nanoparticles provided a high C_max, AUC, MRT, and low clearance rate when compared to commercial eye drops. It can be concluded that such PLGA nanoparticles offer the potential for improved bioavailability of moxifloxacin HCl.

Zoudani E, Daliri R, Aghamirsalim M, Raahemifar K. Biodegradable Nanoparticle for Cornea Drug Delivery: Focus Review

During recent decades, researchers all around the world have focused on the characteristic pros and cons of the different drug delivery systems for cornea tissue change for sense organs. The delivery of various drugs for cornea tissue is one of the most attractive and challenging activities for researchers in biomaterials, pharmacology, and ophthalmology. This method is so important for cornea wound healing because of the controllable release rate and enhancement in drug bioavailability. It should be noted that the delivery of various kinds of drugs into the different parts of the eye, especially the cornea, is so difficult because of the unique anatomy and various barriers in the eye. Nanoparticles are investigated to improve drug delivery systems for corneal disease. Biodegradable nanocarriers for repeated corneal drug delivery is one of the most attractive and challenging methods for corneal drug delivery because they have shown acceptable ability for this purpose. On the other hand, by using these kinds of nanoparticles, a drug could reside in various part of the cornea for longer. In this review, we summarized all approaches for corneal drug delivery with emphasis on the biodegradable nanoparticles, such as liposomes, dendrimers, polymeric nanoparticles, niosomes, microemulsions, nanosuspensions, and hydrogels. Moreover, we discuss the anatomy of the cornea at first and gene therapy at the end.

Neurotrophic Factors in Glaucoma and Innovative Delivery Systems

Glaucoma is a neurodegenerative disease and a worldwide leading cause of irreversible vision loss. In the last decades, high efforts have been made to develop novel treatments effective in inducing protection and/or recovery of neural function in glaucoma, including neurotrophic factors (NTFs). These approaches have shown encouraging data in preclinical setting; however, the challenge of sustained, targeted delivery to the retina and optic nerve still prevents the clinical translation. In this paper, the authors review and discuss the most recent advances for the use of NTFs treatment in glaucoma, including intraocular delivery. Novel strategies in drug and gene delivery technology for NTFs are proving effective in promoting long-term retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) survival and related functional improvements. Results of experimental and clinical studies evaluating the efficacy and safety of biodegradable slow-release NTF-loaded microparticle devices, encapsulated NTF-secreting cells implants, mimetic ligands for NTF receptors, and viral and non-viral NTF gene vehicles are discussed. NTFs are able to prevent and even reverse apoptotic ganglion cell death. Nevertheless, neuroprotection in glaucoma remains an open issue due to the unmet need of sustained delivery to the posterior segment of the eye. The recent advances in intraocular delivery systems pave the way for possible future use of NTFs in clinical practice for the treatment of glaucoma.

Corticosteroids in ophthalmology: drug delivery innovations, pharmacology, clinical applications, and future perspectives

Corticosteroids remain the mainstay of the treatment for various ocular conditions affecting the ocular surface, anterior and posterior segments of the eye due to their anti-inflammatory, anti-oedematous, and anti-neovascularization properties. Prednisolone, prednisolone acetate, dexamethasone, triamcinolone acetonide, fluocinolone acetonide, and loteprednol etabonate are amongst the most widely used ophthalmic corticosteroids. Corticosteroids differ in their activity and potency in the eye due to their inherent pharmacological and pharmaceutical differences. Different routes and regimens are available for ocular administration of corticosteroids. Conventional topical application to the eye is the route of choice when targeting diseases affecting the ocular surface and anterior segment, while periocular, intravitreal, and suprachoroidal injections can be potentially effective for posterior segment diseases. Corticosteroid-induced intraocular pressure elevation and cataract formation remain the most significant local risks following topical as well as systemic corticosteroid administration. Invasive drug administration via intracameral, subconjunctival, and intravitreal injection can enhance ocular bioavailability and minimize dose and dosing frequency of administration, yet may exacerbate ocular side effects of corticosteroids. This review provides a critical appraisal of the ophthalmic uses of corticosteroid, routes of administration, drug delivery fundamentals and novel ocular implantable steroid delivery systems, factors influencing side effects, and future perspectives for ocular corticosteroid therapy.

The gamut of perspectives, challenges, and recent trends for in situ hydrogels: a smart ophthalmic drug delivery vehicle

Polymers have a major role in the controlled delivery of pharmaceutical compounds to a targeted portion of the body. In this quest, a high priority research area is the targeted delivery of ophthalmic drugs to the interior regions of the eyes. Due to their complex anatomical/biochemical nature. This necessitates an advanced drug delivery cargo that could administer a therapeutic agent to the targeted location by evading various obstacles. The ongoing focus is to design an ophthalmic formulation by coupling it with a smart in situ forming polymeric hydrogel. These smart macromolecules have an array of unique theranostic properties and can utilize the in vivo biological parameters as a stimulus to change their macromolecular state from liquid to gel. The fast gelling hydrogel improves the corneal contact time, facilitates sustained drug release, resists the burst-out effect, and assists drug permeability to anterior regions. This review summarizes the rationale, scientific objectives, properties, and classification of the biologically important in situ hydrogels in the niche of ophthalmic drug delivery. The current trends and prospectives of the array of stimulus-responsive polymers, copolymers, and nanomaterials are discussed broadly. The crucial biointerfacial attributes with pros and cons are reviewed by investigating the effect of the nature of polymers as well as the ratio/percentage of additives and copolymers that influence the overall performance.

Contact Lenses as Drug Delivery System for Glaucoma: A Review

Glaucoma is an optical neuropathy associated to a progressive degeneration of retinal ganglion cells with visual field loss and is the main cause of irreversible blindness in the world. The treatment has the aim to reduce intraocular pressure. The first therapy option is to instill drugs on the ocular surface. The main limitation of this is the reduced time of the drug staying on the cornea. This means that high doses are required to ensure its therapeutic effect. A drug-loaded contact lens can diffuse into the post lens tear film in a constant and prolonged flow, resulting in an increased retention of the drug on the surface of the cornea for up to 30 min and thus providing a higher drug bioavailability, increasing the therapeutic efficacy, reducing the amount of administered drug, and thereby provoking fewer adverse events. Several different systems of drug delivery have been studied in recent decades; ranging from more simple methods of impregnating the lenses, such as soaking, to more complex ones, such as molecular imprinting have been proposed. Moreover, different drugs, from those already commercially available to new substances such as melatonin have been studied to improve the glaucoma treatment efficacy. This review describes the role of contact lenses as an innovative drug delivery system to treat glaucoma.

Mucus-Penetrating Particles and the Role of Ocular Mucus as a Barrier to Micro- and Nanosuspensions

The ocular surface is naturally covered with a layer of mucus. Along with other functions, this mucus layer serves to trap and eliminate foreign substances, such as allergens, pathogens, and debris. In playing this pivotal role, mucus can also hinder topical delivery of therapeutics to the eye. Recent studies provide evidence that drugs formulated as traditional micro- or nanoparticles are susceptible to entrapment and rapid clearance by ocular mucus. Mucus-penetrating particles (MPPs) is a nanoparticle technology that emerged over the past decade. With a muco-inert surface and a particle size smaller than the mucus mesh size, MPPs can diffuse in ex vivo mucus essentially freely. Preclinical studies have shown that, compared with particles lacking the mucus-penetrating attributes, MPPs can improve the uniformity of drug particle distribution on mucosal surfaces and enhance drug delivery to ocular tissues.