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Nakazato Y, Otaki JM. Protein Delivery to Insect Epithelial Cells In Vivo: Potential Application to Functional Molecular Analysis of Proteins in Butterfly Wing Development. BIOTECH 2023; 12:biotech12020028. [PMID: 37092472 PMCID: PMC10123617 DOI: 10.3390/biotech12020028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Revised: 04/12/2023] [Accepted: 04/13/2023] [Indexed: 04/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein delivery to cells in vivo has great potential for the functional analysis of proteins in nonmodel organisms. In this study, using the butterfly wing system, we investigated a method of protein delivery to insect epithelial cells that allows for easy access, treatment, and observation in real time in vivo. Topical and systemic applications (called the sandwich and injection methods, respectively) were tested. In both methods, green/orange fluorescent proteins (GFP/OFP) were naturally incorporated into intracellular vesicles and occasionally into the cytosol from the apical surface without any delivery reagent. However, the antibodies were not delivered by the sandwich method at all, and were delivered only into vesicles by the injection method. A membrane-lytic peptide, L17E, appeared to slightly improve the delivery of GFP/OFP and antibodies. A novel peptide reagent, ProteoCarry, successfully promoted the delivery of both GFP/OFP and antibodies into the cytosol via both the sandwich and injection methods. These protein delivery results will provide opportunities for the functional molecular analysis of proteins in butterfly wing development, and may offer a new way to deliver proteins into target cells in vivo in nonmodel organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yugo Nakazato
- The BCPH Unit of Molecular Physiology, Department of Chemistry, Biology and Marine Science, Faculty of Science, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa 903-0213, Japan
| | - Joji M Otaki
- The BCPH Unit of Molecular Physiology, Department of Chemistry, Biology and Marine Science, Faculty of Science, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa 903-0213, Japan
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2
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Halloy F, Biscans A, Bujold KE, Debacker A, Hill AC, Lacroix A, Luige O, Strömberg R, Sundstrom L, Vogel J, Ghidini A. Innovative developments and emerging technologies in RNA therapeutics. RNA Biol 2022; 19:313-332. [PMID: 35188077 PMCID: PMC8865321 DOI: 10.1080/15476286.2022.2027150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
RNA-based therapeutics are emerging as a powerful platform for the treatment of multiple diseases. Currently, the two main categories of nucleic acid therapeutics, antisense oligonucleotides and small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), achieve their therapeutic effect through either gene silencing, splicing modulation or microRNA binding, giving rise to versatile options to target pathogenic gene expression patterns. Moreover, ongoing research seeks to expand the scope of RNA-based drugs to include more complex nucleic acid templates, such as messenger RNA, as exemplified by the first approved mRNA-based vaccine in 2020. The increasing number of approved sequences and ongoing clinical trials has attracted considerable interest in the chemical development of oligonucleotides and nucleic acids as drugs, especially since the FDA approval of the first siRNA drug in 2018. As a result, a variety of innovative approaches is emerging, highlighting the potential of RNA as one of the most prominent therapeutic tools in the drug design and development pipeline. This review seeks to provide a comprehensive summary of current efforts in academia and industry aimed at fully realizing the potential of RNA-based therapeutics. Towards this, we introduce established and emerging RNA-based technologies, with a focus on their potential as biosensors and therapeutics. We then describe their mechanisms of action and their application in different disease contexts, along with the strengths and limitations of each strategy. Since the nucleic acid toolbox is rapidly expanding, we also introduce RNA minimal architectures, RNA/protein cleavers and viral RNA as promising modalities for new therapeutics and discuss future directions for the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- François Halloy
- Department of Paediatrics, Medical Sciences Division, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Annabelle Biscans
- Oligonucleotide Chemistry, Discovery Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&d, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Katherine E. Bujold
- Department of Chemistry & Chemical Biology, McMaster University, (Ontario), Canada
| | | | - Alyssa C. Hill
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, Eth Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Aurélie Lacroix
- Sixfold Bioscience, Translation & Innovation Hub, London, UK
| | - Olivia Luige
- Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, Sweden
| | - Roger Strömberg
- Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, Sweden
| | - Linda Sundstrom
- Mechanistic and Structural Biology, Discovery Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&d, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Jörg Vogel
- Helmholtz Institute for RNA-based Infection Research (Hiri), Helmholtz Center for Infection Research (Hzi), Würzburg, Germany
- RNA Biology Group, Institute for Molecular Infection Biology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Alice Ghidini
- Mechanistic and Structural Biology, Discovery Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&d, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden
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3
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Cell-Penetrating Peptides and Transportan. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:pharmaceutics13070987. [PMID: 34210007 PMCID: PMC8308968 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13070987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Revised: 06/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In the most recent 25–30 years, multiple novel mechanisms and applications of cell-penetrating peptides (CPP) have been demonstrated, leading to novel drug delivery systems. In this review, I present a brief introduction to the CPP area with selected recent achievements. This is followed by a nostalgic journey into the research in my own laboratories, which lead to multiple CPPs, starting from transportan and paving a way to CPP-based therapeutic developments in the delivery of bio-functional materials, such as peptides, proteins, vaccines, oligonucleotides and small molecules, etc.
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Novak D, Tomašič T, Krošelj M, Javornik U, Plavec J, Anderluh M, Kolenc Peitl P. Radiolabelled CCK 2 R Antagonists Containing PEG Linkers: Design, Synthesis and Evaluation. ChemMedChem 2020; 16:155-163. [PMID: 32643833 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.202000392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The cholecystokinin-2/gastrin receptor (CCK2 R) is considered a suitable target for the development of radiolabelled antagonists, due to its overexpression in various tumours, but no such compounds are available in clinical use. Therefore, we designed novel 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid-conjugated ligands based on CCK2 R antagonist Z360/nastorazepide. As a proof of concept that CCK2 R antagonistic activity can be retained by extending the Z360/nastorazepide structure using suitable linker, we present herein three compounds containing various PEG linkers synthesised on solid phase and in solution. The antagonistic properties were measured in a functional assay in the A431-CCK2 R cell line (in the presence of agonist G17), with IC50 values of 3.31, 4.11 and 10.4 nM for compounds containing PEG4 , PEG6 and PEG12 , respectively. All compounds were successfully radiolabelled with indium-111, lutetium-177 and gallium-68 (incorporation of radiometal >95 %). The gallium-68-labelled compounds were stable for up to 2 h (PBS, 37 °C). log D7.4 values were determined for indium-111- and gallium-68-labelled compounds, showing improved hydrophilicity compared to the reference compound.
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Affiliation(s)
- Doroteja Novak
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Medical Centre Ljubljana, Zaloška 7, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia.,The Chair of Pharmaceutical Chemistry Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 7, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Tihomir Tomašič
- The Chair of Pharmaceutical Chemistry Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 7, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Marko Krošelj
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Medical Centre Ljubljana, Zaloška 7, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Uroš Javornik
- Slovenian NMR Centre, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Janez Plavec
- Slovenian NMR Centre, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Marko Anderluh
- The Chair of Pharmaceutical Chemistry Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 7, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Petra Kolenc Peitl
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Medical Centre Ljubljana, Zaloška 7, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Poret B, Desrues L, Bonin MA, Pedard M, Dubois M, Leduc R, Modzelewski R, Decazes P, Morin F, Vera P, Castel H, Bohn P, Gandolfo P. Development of Novel 111-In-Labelled DOTA Urotensin II Analogues for Targeting the UT Receptor Overexpressed in Solid Tumours. Biomolecules 2020; 10:biom10030471. [PMID: 32204509 PMCID: PMC7175314 DOI: 10.3390/biom10030471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2020] [Revised: 03/17/2020] [Accepted: 03/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Overexpression of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) in tumours is widely used to develop GPCR-targeting radioligands for solid tumour imaging in the context of diagnosis and even treatment. The human vasoactive neuropeptide urotensin II (hUII), which shares structural analogies with somatostatin, interacts with a single high affinity GPCR named UT. High expression of UT has been reported in several types of human solid tumours from lung, gut, prostate, or breast, suggesting that UT is a valuable novel target to design radiolabelled hUII analogues for cancer diagnosis. In this study, two original urotensinergic analogues were first conjugated to a DOTA chelator via an aminohexanoic acid (Ahx) hydrocarbon linker and then -hUII and DOTA-urantide, complexed to the radioactive metal indium isotope to successfully lead to radiolabelled DOTA-Ahx-hUII and DOTA-Ahx-urantide. The 111In-DOTA-hUII in human plasma revealed that only 30% of the radioligand was degraded after a 3-h period. DOTA-hUII and DOTA-urantide exhibited similar binding affinities as native peptides and relayed calcium mobilization in HEK293 cells expressing recombinant human UT. DOTA-hUII, not DOTA-urantide, was able to promote UT internalization in UT-expressing HEK293 cells, thus indicating that radiolabelled 111In-DOTA-hUII would allow sufficient retention of radioactivity within tumour cells or radiolabelled DOTA-urantide may lead to a persistent binding on UT at the plasma membrane. The potential of these radioligands as candidates to target UT was investigated in adenocarcinoma. We showed that hUII stimulated the migration and proliferation of both human lung A549 and colorectal DLD-1 adenocarcinoma cell lines endogenously expressing UT. In vivo intravenous injection of 111In-DOTA-hUII in C57BL/6 mice revealed modest organ signals, with important retention in kidney. 111In-DOTA-hUII or 111In-DOTA-urantide were also injected in nude mice bearing heterotopic xenografts of lung A549 cells or colorectal DLD-1 cells both expressing UT. The observed significant renal uptake and low tumour/muscle ratio (around 2.5) suggest fast tracer clearance from the organism. Together, DOTA-hUII and DOTA-urantide were successfully radiolabelled with 111Indium, the first one functioning as a UT agonist and the second one as a UT-biased ligand/antagonist. To allow tumour-specific targeting and prolong body distribution in preclinical models bearing some solid tumours, these radiolabelled urotensinergic analogues should be optimized for being used as potential molecular tools for diagnosis imaging or even treatment tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Poret
- Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine (IRIB), University of Rouen Normandy, INSERM U1239, DC2N, 76000 Rouen, France; (B.P.); (L.D.); (M.P.); (M.D.); (F.M.); (P.G.)
- EA 4108, Laboratory of Computer Science, Information Processing and Systems (LITIS), team “QuantIF”, Centre Henri Becquerel, 76000 Rouen, France; (R.M.); (P.D.); (P.V.); (P.B.)
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Institute of Sherbrooke, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Sherbrooke University, Sherbrooke, QC J1H 5N4, Canada; (M.-A.B.); (R.L.)
| | - Laurence Desrues
- Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine (IRIB), University of Rouen Normandy, INSERM U1239, DC2N, 76000 Rouen, France; (B.P.); (L.D.); (M.P.); (M.D.); (F.M.); (P.G.)
- EA 4108, Laboratory of Computer Science, Information Processing and Systems (LITIS), team “QuantIF”, Centre Henri Becquerel, 76000 Rouen, France; (R.M.); (P.D.); (P.V.); (P.B.)
- Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine (IRIB), 76000 Rouen, France
| | - Marc-André Bonin
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Institute of Sherbrooke, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Sherbrooke University, Sherbrooke, QC J1H 5N4, Canada; (M.-A.B.); (R.L.)
| | - Martin Pedard
- Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine (IRIB), University of Rouen Normandy, INSERM U1239, DC2N, 76000 Rouen, France; (B.P.); (L.D.); (M.P.); (M.D.); (F.M.); (P.G.)
- Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine (IRIB), 76000 Rouen, France
| | - Martine Dubois
- Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine (IRIB), University of Rouen Normandy, INSERM U1239, DC2N, 76000 Rouen, France; (B.P.); (L.D.); (M.P.); (M.D.); (F.M.); (P.G.)
- Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine (IRIB), 76000 Rouen, France
| | - Richard Leduc
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Institute of Sherbrooke, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Sherbrooke University, Sherbrooke, QC J1H 5N4, Canada; (M.-A.B.); (R.L.)
| | - Romain Modzelewski
- EA 4108, Laboratory of Computer Science, Information Processing and Systems (LITIS), team “QuantIF”, Centre Henri Becquerel, 76000 Rouen, France; (R.M.); (P.D.); (P.V.); (P.B.)
- Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine (IRIB), 76000 Rouen, France
| | - Pierre Decazes
- EA 4108, Laboratory of Computer Science, Information Processing and Systems (LITIS), team “QuantIF”, Centre Henri Becquerel, 76000 Rouen, France; (R.M.); (P.D.); (P.V.); (P.B.)
- Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine (IRIB), 76000 Rouen, France
| | - Fabrice Morin
- Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine (IRIB), University of Rouen Normandy, INSERM U1239, DC2N, 76000 Rouen, France; (B.P.); (L.D.); (M.P.); (M.D.); (F.M.); (P.G.)
- EA 4108, Laboratory of Computer Science, Information Processing and Systems (LITIS), team “QuantIF”, Centre Henri Becquerel, 76000 Rouen, France; (R.M.); (P.D.); (P.V.); (P.B.)
- Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine (IRIB), 76000 Rouen, France
| | - Pierre Vera
- EA 4108, Laboratory of Computer Science, Information Processing and Systems (LITIS), team “QuantIF”, Centre Henri Becquerel, 76000 Rouen, France; (R.M.); (P.D.); (P.V.); (P.B.)
- Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine (IRIB), 76000 Rouen, France
| | - Hélène Castel
- Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine (IRIB), University of Rouen Normandy, INSERM U1239, DC2N, 76000 Rouen, France; (B.P.); (L.D.); (M.P.); (M.D.); (F.M.); (P.G.)
- Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine (IRIB), 76000 Rouen, France
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +(33)-2-35-14-66-23
| | - Pierre Bohn
- EA 4108, Laboratory of Computer Science, Information Processing and Systems (LITIS), team “QuantIF”, Centre Henri Becquerel, 76000 Rouen, France; (R.M.); (P.D.); (P.V.); (P.B.)
- Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine (IRIB), 76000 Rouen, France
| | - Pierrick Gandolfo
- Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine (IRIB), University of Rouen Normandy, INSERM U1239, DC2N, 76000 Rouen, France; (B.P.); (L.D.); (M.P.); (M.D.); (F.M.); (P.G.)
- Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine (IRIB), 76000 Rouen, France
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Schiroli D, Gómara MJ, Maurizi E, Atkinson SD, Mairs L, Christie KA, Cobice DF, McCrudden CM, Nesbit MA, Haro I, Moore T. Effective In Vivo Topical Delivery of siRNA and Gene Silencing in Intact Corneal Epithelium Using a Modified Cell-Penetrating Peptide. MOLECULAR THERAPY. NUCLEIC ACIDS 2019; 17:891-906. [PMID: 31476668 PMCID: PMC6723413 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtn.2019.07.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2019] [Revised: 07/18/2019] [Accepted: 07/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Autosomal dominantly inherited genetic disorders such as corneal dystrophies are amenable to allele-specific gene silencing with small interfering RNA (siRNA). siRNA delivered to the cornea by injection, although effective, is not suitable for a frequent long-term treatment regimen, whereas topical delivery of siRNA to the cornea is hampered by the eye surface's protective mechanisms. Herein we describe an attractive and innovative alternative for topical application using cell-penetrating peptide derivatives capable of complexing siRNA non-covalently and delivering them into the cornea. Through a rational design approach, we modified derivatives of a cell-penetrating peptide, peptide for ocular delivery (POD), already proved to diffuse into the corneal layers. These POD derivatives were able to form siRNA-peptide complexes (polyplexes) of size and ζ-potential similar to those reported able to undergo cellular internalization. Successful cytoplasmic release and gene silencing in vitro was obtained when an endosomal disruptor, chloroquine, was added. A palmitoylated-POD, displaying the best delivery properties, was covalently functionalized with trifluoromethylquinoline, an analog of chloroquine. This modified POD, named trifluoromethylquinoline-palmitoyl-POD (QN-Palm-POD), when complexed with siRNA and topically applied to the eye in vivo, resulted in up to 30% knockdown of luciferase reporter gene expression in the corneal epithelium. The methods developed within represent a valid standardized approach that is ideal for screening of a range of delivery formulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Schiroli
- Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, University of Ulster, Coleraine BT52 1SA, Northern Ireland
| | - María J Gómara
- Unit of Synthesis and Biomedical Applications of Peptides, Department of Biomedical Chemistry, Institute for Advanced Chemistry of Catalonia, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IQAC-CSIC), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Eleonora Maurizi
- Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, University of Ulster, Coleraine BT52 1SA, Northern Ireland
| | - Sarah D Atkinson
- Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, University of Ulster, Coleraine BT52 1SA, Northern Ireland; Northern Ireland Centre for Stratified Medicine, University of Ulster, Londonderry BT47 6SB, UK
| | - Laura Mairs
- Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, University of Ulster, Coleraine BT52 1SA, Northern Ireland
| | - Kathleen A Christie
- Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, University of Ulster, Coleraine BT52 1SA, Northern Ireland
| | - Diego F Cobice
- Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, University of Ulster, Coleraine BT52 1SA, Northern Ireland
| | - Cian M McCrudden
- School of Pharmacy, Queen's University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast BT9 7BL, Northern Ireland
| | - M Andrew Nesbit
- Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, University of Ulster, Coleraine BT52 1SA, Northern Ireland
| | - Isabel Haro
- Unit of Synthesis and Biomedical Applications of Peptides, Department of Biomedical Chemistry, Institute for Advanced Chemistry of Catalonia, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IQAC-CSIC), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Tara Moore
- Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, University of Ulster, Coleraine BT52 1SA, Northern Ireland.
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How to evaluate the cellular uptake of CPPs with fluorescence techniques: Dissecting methodological pitfalls associated to tryptophan-rich peptides. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2019; 1861:1533-1545. [PMID: 31283917 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2019.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Revised: 06/10/2019] [Accepted: 06/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Cell-penetrating peptides (CPP) are broadly recognized as efficient non-viral vectors for the internalization of compounds such as peptides, oligonucleotides or proteins. Characterizing these carriers requires reliable methods to quantify their intracellular uptake. Flow cytometry on living cells is a method of choice but is not always applicable (e.g. big or polarized cells), so we decided to compare it to fluorescence spectroscopy on cell lysates. Surprisingly, for the internalization of a series of TAMRA-labeled conjugates formed of either cationic or amphipathic CPPs covalently coupled to a decamer peptide, we observed important differences in internalization levels between both methods. We partly explained these discrepancies by analyzing the effect of buffer conditions (pH, detergents) and peptide sequence/structure on TAMRA dye accessibility. Based on this analysis, we calculated a correction coefficient allowing a better coherence between both methods. However, an overestimated signal was still observable for both amphipathic peptides using the spectroscopic detection, which could be due to their localization at the cell membrane. Based on several in vitro experiments modeling events at the plasma membrane, we hypothesized that fluorescence of peptides entrapped in the membrane bilayer could be quenched by the tryptophan residues of close transmembrane proteins. During cell lysis, cell membranes are disintegrated liberating the entrapped peptides and restoring the fluorescence, explaining the divergences observed between flow cytometry and spectroscopy on lysates. Overall, our results highlighted major biases in the fluorescently-based quantification of internalized fluorescently-labeled CPP conjugates, which should be considered for accurate uptake quantification.
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Rüter C, Lubos ML, Norkowski S, Schmidt MA. All in—Multiple parallel strategies for intracellular delivery by bacterial pathogens. Int J Med Microbiol 2018; 308:872-881. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmm.2018.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2018] [Revised: 06/01/2018] [Accepted: 06/16/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
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Dunina-Barkovskaya AY, Vishnyakova KS, Golovko AO, Arutyunyan AM, Baratova LA, Bathishchev OV, Radyukhin VA. Amphipathic CRAC-Containing Peptides Derived from the Influenza Virus A M1 Protein Modulate Cholesterol-Dependent Activity of Cultured IC-21 Macrophages. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2018; 83:982-991. [PMID: 30208834 DOI: 10.1134/s0006297918080096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Entry of many viral and bacterial pathogens into host cells depends on cholesterol and/or cholesterol-enriched domains (lipid rafts) in the cell membrane. Earlier, we showed that influenza virus A matrix protein M1 contains amphipathic α-helices with exposed cholesterol-recognizing amino acid consensus (CRAC) motifs. In order to test possible functional activity of these motifs, we studied the effects of three synthetic peptides corresponding to the CRAC-containing α-helices of the viral M1 protein on the phagocytic activity of cultured mouse IC-21 macrophages. The following peptides were used: LEVLMEWLKTR (M1 α-helix 3, a.a. 39-49; further referred to as peptide 1), NNMDKAVKLYRKLK (M1 α-helix 6, a.a. 91-105; peptide 2), and GLKNDLLENLQAYQKR (M1 α-helix 13, a.a. 228-243; peptide 3). We found that all three peptides modulated interactions of IC-21 macrophages with non-opsonized 2-µm target particles. The greatest effect was demonstrated by peptide 2: in the presence of 35 μM peptide 2, the phagocytic index of IC-21 macrophages exceeded the control value by 60%; 10-11 mM methyl-β-cyclodextrin abolished this effect. Peptides 1 and 3 exerted weak inhibitory effect in a narrow concentration range of 5-10 μM. The dose-response curves could be approximated by a sum of two (stimulatory and inhibitory) components with different Hill coefficients, suggesting existence of at least two peptide-binding sites with different affinities on the cell surface. CD spectroscopy confirmed that the peptides exhibit structural flexibility in solutions. Altogether, our data indicate that amphipathic CRAC-containing peptides derived from the viral M1 protein modulate lipid raft-dependent processes in IC-21 macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Ya Dunina-Barkovskaya
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119991, Russia.
| | - Kh S Vishnyakova
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119991, Russia
| | - A O Golovko
- Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119991, Russia
| | - A M Arutyunyan
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119991, Russia
| | - L A Baratova
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119991, Russia
| | - O V Bathishchev
- Frumkin Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119071, Russia
| | - V A Radyukhin
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119991, Russia.
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10
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Lorents A, Säälik P, Langel Ü, Pooga M. Arginine-Rich Cell-Penetrating Peptides Require Nucleolin and Cholesterol-Poor Subdomains for Translocation across Membranes. Bioconjug Chem 2018; 29:1168-1177. [PMID: 29510042 DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.7b00805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Proficient transport vectors called cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) internalize into eukaryotic cells mostly via endocytic pathways and facilitate the uptake of various cargo molecules attached to them. However, some CPPs are able to induce disturbances in the plasma membrane and translocate through it seemingly in an energy-independent manner. For understanding this phenomenon, giant plasma membrane vesicles (GPMVs) derived from the cells are a beneficial model system, since GPMVs have a complex membrane composition comparable to the cells yet lack cellular energy-dependent mechanisms. We investigated the translocation of arginine-rich CPPs into GPMVs with different membrane compositions. Our results demonstrate that lower cholesterol content favors accumulation of nona-arginine and, additionally, sequestration of cholesterol increases the uptake of the CPPs in vesicles with higher cholesterol packing density. Furthermore, the proteins on the surface of vesicles are essential for the uptake of arginine-rich CPPs: downregulation of nucleolin decreases the accumulation and digestion of proteins on the membrane suppresses translocation even more efficiently.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annely Lorents
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology , University of Tartu , Riia 23 , 51010 Tartu , Estonia
- Institute of Technology , University of Tartu , Nooruse 1 , 50411 Tartu , Estonia
| | - Pille Säälik
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology , University of Tartu , Riia 23 , 51010 Tartu , Estonia
- Institute of Biomedicine and Translational Medicine , University of Tartu , Ravila 14B , 50411 Tartu , Estonia
| | - Ülo Langel
- Institute of Technology , University of Tartu , Nooruse 1 , 50411 Tartu , Estonia
- Department of Neurochemistry , Stockholm University , Svante Arrhenius väg 16B , 10691 Stockholm , Sweden
| | - Margus Pooga
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology , University of Tartu , Riia 23 , 51010 Tartu , Estonia
- Institute of Technology , University of Tartu , Nooruse 1 , 50411 Tartu , Estonia
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Wang H, Ma JL, Yang YG, Song Y, Wu J, Qin YY, Zhao XL, Wang J, Zou LL, Wu JF, Li JM, Liu CB. Efficient therapeutic delivery by a novel cell-permeant peptide derived from KDM4A protein for antitumor and antifibrosis. Oncotarget 2018; 7:49075-49090. [PMID: 27081693 PMCID: PMC5226491 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.8682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2016] [Accepted: 03/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Cell-penetrating peptide (CPP) based delivery have provided immense potential for the therapeutic applications, however, most of nonhuman originated CPPs carry the risk of possible cytotoxicity and immunogenicity, thus may restricting to be used. Here, we describe a novel human-derived CPP, denoted hPP10, and hPP10 has cell-penetrating properties evaluated by CellPPD web server, as well as In-Vitro and In-Vivo analysis. In vitro studies showed that hPP10-FITC was able to penetrate into various cells including primary cultured cells, likely through an endocytosis pathway. And functionalized macromolecules, such as green fluorescent protein (GFP), tumor-specific apoptosis inducer Apoptin as well as biological active enzyme GCLC (Glutamate-cysteine ligase, catalytic subunit) can be delivered by hPP10 in vitro and in vivo. Collectively, our results suggest that hPP10 provide a novel and versatile tool to deliver exogenous proteins or drugs for clinical applications as well as reprogrammed cell-based therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hu Wang
- The Institute of Cell Therapy, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443002, China.,Medical School, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443002, China.,Hubei Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment and Immunotherapy, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443002, China
| | - Jie-Lan Ma
- Medical School, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443002, China
| | - Ying-Gui Yang
- The Institute of Cell Therapy, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443002, China.,Medical School, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443002, China
| | - Yang Song
- The Institute of Cell Therapy, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443002, China.,Medical School, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443002, China.,Hubei Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment and Immunotherapy, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443002, China
| | - Jiao Wu
- The Institute of Cell Therapy, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443002, China.,Medical School, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443002, China.,Hubei Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment and Immunotherapy, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443002, China
| | - Yan-Yan Qin
- Medical School, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443002, China.,Hubei Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment and Immunotherapy, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443002, China
| | - Xue-Li Zhao
- Medical School, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443002, China.,Hubei Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment and Immunotherapy, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443002, China
| | - Jun Wang
- The Institute of Cell Therapy, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443002, China.,The 1st People's Hospital of Yichang, Yichang 443000, China
| | - Li-Li Zou
- The Institute of Cell Therapy, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443002, China.,Medical School, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443002, China
| | - Jiang-Feng Wu
- The Institute of Cell Therapy, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443002, China.,Medical School, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443002, China
| | - Jun-Ming Li
- The Institute of Cell Therapy, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443002, China.,The 1st People's Hospital of Yichang, Yichang 443000, China
| | - Chang-Bai Liu
- The Institute of Cell Therapy, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443002, China.,Medical School, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443002, China.,Hubei Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment and Immunotherapy, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443002, China
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12
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Aoyama K, Kuroda S, Morihiro T, Kanaya N, Kubota T, Kakiuchi Y, Kikuchi S, Nishizaki M, Kagawa S, Tazawa H, Fujiwara T. Liposome-encapsulated plasmid DNA of telomerase-specific oncolytic adenovirus with stealth effect on the immune system. Sci Rep 2017; 7:14177. [PMID: 29074882 PMCID: PMC5658411 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-14717-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2017] [Accepted: 10/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic virotherapy has the disadvantage of being unsuitable for systemic delivery due to immune elimination. Liposomal encapsulation is well-recognized to reduce immune elimination and enhance the stability of drugs in the bloodstream. In the present study, the potential of liposome-encapsulated plasmid DNA of telomerase-specific oncolytic adenovirus (TelomeScan) expressing GFP (Lipo-pTS) as an oncolytic adenoviral agent suitable for systemic delivery was investigated. Lipo-pTS, which has a diameter of 40–50 nm, showed potent antitumor effects on HCT116 colon carcinoma cells in vitro and in vivo. Tumor selectivity of Lipo-pTS was independent of coxsackie and adenovirus receptor (CAR). Importantly, Lipo-pTS reduced production of adenovirus-neutralizing antibodies (AdNAbs) after intravenous administration into immune-competent mice compared to TelomeScan, and even in the presence of AdNAbs, Lipo-pTS maintained strong cytotoxicity. In conclusion, Lipo-pTS has the potential to become an oncolytic adenoviral agent suitable for systemic delivery with the characteristics of CAR-independent antitumor activity and a stealth effect on the immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katsuyuki Aoyama
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan
| | - Shinji Kuroda
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan. .,Center for Innovative Clinical Medicine, Okayama University Hospital, Okayama, Japan.
| | - Toshiaki Morihiro
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan
| | - Nobuhiko Kanaya
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan
| | - Tetsushi Kubota
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan
| | - Yoshihiko Kakiuchi
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan
| | - Satoru Kikuchi
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan.,Minimally Invasive Therapy Center, Okayama University Hospital, Okayama, Japan
| | - Masahiko Nishizaki
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan
| | - Shunsuke Kagawa
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan.,Minimally Invasive Therapy Center, Okayama University Hospital, Okayama, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Tazawa
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan.,Center for Innovative Clinical Medicine, Okayama University Hospital, Okayama, Japan
| | - Toshiyoshi Fujiwara
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan
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13
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Urgard E, Lorents A, Klaas M, Padari K, Viil J, Runnel T, Langel K, Kingo K, Tkaczyk E, Langel Ü, Maimets T, Jaks V, Pooga M, Rebane A. Pre-administration of PepFect6-microRNA-146a nanocomplexes inhibits inflammatory responses in keratinocytes and in a mouse model of irritant contact dermatitis. J Control Release 2016; 235:195-204. [PMID: 27269729 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2016.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2016] [Accepted: 06/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The skin is a difficult to access tissue for efficient delivery of large and/or charged macromolecules, including therapeutic DNA and RNA oligonucleotides. Cell-penetrating peptide PepFect6 (PF6) has been shown to be suitable transport vehicle for siRNAs in cell culture and systemically in vivo in mice. MiR-146a is known as anti-inflammatory miRNA that inhibits multiple factors from the nuclear factor (NF)-κB pathway in various cell types, including keratinocytes. In this study, PF6 was shown to form unimodal nanocomplexes with miR-146a mimic that entered into human primary keratinocytes, where miR-146a inhibited the expression of its direct targets from the NF-κB pathway and the genes known to be activated by NF-κB, C-C motif ligand (CCL)5 and interleukin (IL)-8. The transfection of miR-146a mimic with PF6 was more efficient in sub-confluent keratinocyte cultures, affected keratinocyte proliferation less and had similar effect on cell viability when compared with a lipid based agent. Subcutaneous pre-administration of PF6-miR-146a nanocomplexes attenuated ear-swelling and reduced the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines IL-6, CCL11, CCL24 and C-X-C motif ligand 1 (CXCL1) in a mouse model of irritant contact dermatitis. Our data demonstrates that PF6-miR-146a nanoparticles might have potential in the development of therapeutics to target inflammatory skin diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Egon Urgard
- Institute of Biomedicine and Translational Medicine, University of Tartu, Estonia; Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Estonia
| | - Annely Lorents
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Estonia
| | - Mariliis Klaas
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Estonia
| | - Kärt Padari
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Estonia
| | - Janeli Viil
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Estonia
| | - Toomas Runnel
- Institute of Biomedicine and Translational Medicine, University of Tartu, Estonia; Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Estonia
| | - Kent Langel
- Institute of Technology, University of Tartu, Estonia
| | - Külli Kingo
- Department of Dermatology and Venereology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia; Dermatology Clinic, Tartu University Hospital, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Eric Tkaczyk
- Institute of Biomedicine and Translational Medicine, University of Tartu, Estonia; Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, United States
| | - Ülo Langel
- Institute of Technology, University of Tartu, Estonia; Department of Neurochemistry, Stockholm University, Sweden
| | - Toivo Maimets
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Estonia
| | - Viljar Jaks
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Estonia; Department of Bioscience, Karolinska Institute, Sweden
| | - Margus Pooga
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Estonia
| | - Ana Rebane
- Institute of Biomedicine and Translational Medicine, University of Tartu, Estonia.
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14
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Xing L, Shi Q, Zheng K, Shen M, Ma J, Li F, Liu Y, Lin L, Tu W, Duan Y, Du L. Ultrasound-Mediated Microbubble Destruction (UMMD) Facilitates the Delivery of CA19-9 Targeted and Paclitaxel Loaded mPEG-PLGA-PLL Nanoparticles in Pancreatic Cancer. Am J Cancer Res 2016; 6:1573-87. [PMID: 27446491 PMCID: PMC4955056 DOI: 10.7150/thno.15164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2016] [Accepted: 05/01/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Pancreatic cancer, one of the most lethal human malignancies with dismal prognosis, is refractory to existing radio-chemotherapeutic treatment modalities. There is a critical unmet need to develop effective approaches, especially for targeted pancreatic cancer drug delivery. Targeted and drug-loaded nanoparticles (NPs) combined with ultrasound-mediated microbubble destruction (UMMD) have been shown to significantly increase the cellular uptake in vitro and drug retention in vivo, suggesting a promising strategy for cancer therapy. In this study, we synthesized pancreatic cancer-targeting organic NPs that were modified with anti CA19-9 antibody and encapsulated paclitaxol (PTX). The three-block copolymer methoxy polyethylene glycol-polylacticco-glycolic acid-polylysine (mPEG-PLGA-PLL) constituted the skeleton of the NPs. We speculated that the PTX-NPs-anti CA19-9 would circulate long-term in vivo, "actively target" pancreatic cancer cells, and sustainably release the loaded PTX while UMMD would "passively target" the irradiated tumor and effectively increase the permeability of cell membrane and capillary gaps. Our results demonstrated that the combination of PTX-NPs-anti CA19-9 with UMMD achieved a low IC50, significant cell cycle arrest, and cell apoptosis in vitro. In mouse pancreatic tumor xenografts, the combined application of PTX-NP-anti CA19-9 NPs with UMMD attained the highest tumor inhibition rate, promoted the pharmacokinetic profile by increasing AUC, t1/2, and mean residence time (MRT), and decreased clearance. Consequently, the survival of the tumor-bearing nude mice was prolonged without obvious toxicity. The dynamic change in cellular uptake, targeted real-time imaging, and the concentration of PTX in the plasma and tumor were all closely associated with the treatment efficacy both in vitro and in vivo. Our study suggests that PTX-NP-anti CA19-9 NPs combined with UMMD is a promising strategy for the treatment of pancreatic cancer.
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15
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Pae J, Liivamägi L, Lubenets D, Arukuusk P, Langel Ü, Pooga M. Glycosaminoglycans are required for translocation of amphipathic cell-penetrating peptides across membranes. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2016; 1858:1860-7. [PMID: 27117133 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2016.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2016] [Revised: 03/21/2016] [Accepted: 04/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are considered as one of the most promising tools to mediate the cellular delivery of various biologically active compounds that are otherwise cell impermeable. CPPs can internalize into cells via two different pathways - endocytosis and direct translocation across the plasma membrane. In both cases, the initial step of internalization requires interactions between CPPs and different plasma membrane components. Despite the extensive research, it is not yet fully understood, which of these cell surface molecules mediate the direct translocation of CPPs across the plasma- and endosomal membrane. In the present study we used giant plasma membrane vesicles (GPMVs) as a model membrane system to elucidate the specific molecular mechanisms behind the internalization and the role of cell surface glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) in the translocation of four well-known CPPs, classified as cationic (nona-arginine, Tat peptide) and amphipathic (transportan and TP10). We demonstrate here that GAGs facilitate the translocation of amphipathic CPPs, but not the internalization of cationic CPPs; and that the uptake is not mediated by a specific GAG class, but rather the overall amount of these polysaccharides is crucial for the internalization of amphipathic peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janely Pae
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Laura Liivamägi
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Dmitri Lubenets
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Piret Arukuusk
- Institute of Technology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Ülo Langel
- Institute of Technology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia; Department of Neurochemistry, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Margus Pooga
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia.
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16
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Pärnaste L, Arukuusk P, Zagato E, Braeckmans K, Langel Ü. Methods to follow intracellular trafficking of cell-penetrating peptides. J Drug Target 2015; 24:508-19. [DOI: 10.3109/1061186x.2015.1095194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ly Pärnaste
- Laboratory of Molecular Biotechnology, Institute of Technology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia,
| | - Piret Arukuusk
- Laboratory of Molecular Biotechnology, Institute of Technology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia,
| | - Elisa Zagato
- Laboratory for General Biochemistry and Physical Pharmacy, Ghent, University, Gent, Belgium, and
| | - Kevin Braeckmans
- Laboratory for General Biochemistry and Physical Pharmacy, Ghent, University, Gent, Belgium, and
| | - Ülo Langel
- Laboratory of Molecular Biotechnology, Institute of Technology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia,
- Department of Neurochemistry, The Arrhenius Laboratories for Natural Sciences, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
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