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Rouleau N, Levin M. The Multiple Realizability of Sentience in Living Systems and Beyond. eNeuro 2023; 10:ENEURO.0375-23.2023. [PMID: 37963652 PMCID: PMC10646883 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0375-23.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 11/16/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Rouleau
- Department of Health Sciences, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3C5, Canada
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, MA 02155
- Allen Discovery Center at, Tufts University, Medford, MA 02155
| | - Michael Levin
- Allen Discovery Center at, Tufts University, Medford, MA 02155
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02215
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2
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Action potentials induce biomagnetic fields in carnivorous Venus flytrap plants. Sci Rep 2021; 11:1438. [PMID: 33446898 PMCID: PMC7809347 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-81114-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Upon stimulation, plants elicit electrical signals that can travel within a cellular network analogous to the animal nervous system. It is well-known that in the human brain, voltage changes in certain regions result from concerted electrical activity which, in the form of action potentials (APs), travels within nerve-cell arrays. Electro- and magnetophysiological techniques like electroencephalography, magnetoencephalography, and magnetic resonance imaging are used to record this activity and to diagnose disorders. Here we demonstrate that APs in a multicellular plant system produce measurable magnetic fields. Using atomic optically pumped magnetometers, biomagnetism associated with electrical activity in the carnivorous Venus flytrap, Dionaea muscipula, was recorded. Action potentials were induced by heat stimulation and detected both electrically and magnetically. Furthermore, the thermal properties of ion channels underlying the AP were studied. Beyond proof of principle, our findings pave the way to understanding the molecular basis of biomagnetism in living plants. In the future, magnetometry may be used to study long-distance electrical signaling in a variety of plant species, and to develop noninvasive diagnostics of plant stress and disease.
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Sawato T, Iwamoto R, Yamaguchi M. Figure-eight thermal hysteresis of aminomethylenehelicene oligomers with terminal C 16 alkyl groups during hetero-double-helix formation. Chem Sci 2020; 11:3290-3300. [PMID: 34122836 PMCID: PMC8157274 DOI: 10.1039/c9sc06496f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
1 : 1 mixtures of aminomethylenehelicene (P)-tetramer and (M)-pentamer with terminal C16 alkyl groups in fluorobenzene showed structural changes between hetero-double-helices B and C and random-coils 2A. Figure-eight thermal hysteresis appeared when the solution was cooled and heated at a constant rate and involved the crossing of cooling and heating curves in Δε/temperature profiles. This unusual thermal hysteresis emerged in the intermediate state between counterclockwise and clockwise thermal hystereses. This phenomenon arose from the competition between self-catalytic reactions to form B and C from 2A. Significant effects of terminal C16 alkyl groups on the thermodynamic and kinetic phenomena are also described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsukasa Sawato
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University Aoba Sendai 980-8578 Japan +81 22-795-6811
| | - Rina Iwamoto
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University Aoba Sendai 980-8578 Japan +81 22-795-6811
| | - Masahiko Yamaguchi
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University Aoba Sendai 980-8578 Japan +81 22-795-6811
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Tuszynski JA, Friesen D, Freedman H, Sbitnev VI, Kim H, Santelices I, Kalra AP, Patel SD, Shankar K, Chua LO. Microtubules as Sub-Cellular Memristors. Sci Rep 2020; 10:2108. [PMID: 32034179 PMCID: PMC7005844 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-58820-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2019] [Accepted: 01/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Memristors represent the fourth electrical circuit element complementing resistors, capacitors and inductors. Hallmarks of memristive behavior include pinched and frequency-dependent I–V hysteresis loops and most importantly a functional dependence of the magnetic flux passing through an ideal memristor on its electrical charge. Microtubules (MTs), cylindrical protein polymers composed of tubulin dimers are key components of the cytoskeleton. They have been shown to increase solution’s ionic conductance and re-orient in the presence of electric fields. It has been hypothesized that MTs also possess intrinsic capacitive and inductive properties, leading to transistor-like behavior. Here, we show a theoretical basis and experimental support for the assertion that MTs under specific circumstances behave consistently with the definition of a memristor. Their biophysical properties lead to pinched hysteretic current–voltage dependence as well a classic dependence of magnetic flux on electric charge. Based on the information about the structure of MTs we provide an estimate of their memristance. We discuss its significance for biology, especially neuroscience, and potential for nanotechnology applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack A Tuszynski
- Department of Oncology, University of Alberta, Cross Cancer Institute, Edmonton, AB, Canada, T6G 1Z2. .,Department of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada, T6G 2E1. .,DIMEAS, Politecnico di Torino, 10129, Turin, Italy.
| | - Douglas Friesen
- Department of Oncology, University of Alberta, Cross Cancer Institute, Edmonton, AB, Canada, T6G 1Z2
| | - Holly Freedman
- Li Ka Shing Institute of Applied Virology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada, T6G 2E1
| | - Valery I Sbitnev
- St. Petersburg B. P. Konstantinov Nuclear Physics Institute, NRC Kurchatov Institute, Gatchina, Leningrad district, 188350, Russian Federation.,Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Hyongsuk Kim
- Division of Electronics Engineering, Chonbuk National University, Jeonju, Jeonbuk, 561-756, South Korea
| | - Iara Santelices
- Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada, T6G 1H9
| | - Aarat P Kalra
- Department of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada, T6G 2E1
| | - Sahil D Patel
- Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada, T6G 1H9
| | - Karthik Shankar
- Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada, T6G 1H9
| | - Leon O Chua
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
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Volkov AG, Nyasani EK. Sunpatiens compact hot coral: memristors in flowers. FUNCTIONAL PLANT BIOLOGY : FPB 2018; 45:222-227. [PMID: 32291036 DOI: 10.1071/fp16326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2016] [Accepted: 02/07/2017] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Leon Chua postulated the theory of a memristor - a resistor with memory - in 1971, and the first solid-state memristor was built in 2008. Memristors exist in vivo as components of plasma membranes in plants, fruits, roots and seeds. A memristor is a nonlinear element; its current-voltage characteristic is similar to that of a Lissajous pattern. Here, we found memristors in flowers. Electrostimulation by bipolar periodic sinusoidal or triangular waves of an androecium, a spur, petals and a pedicel in Sunpatiens flowers induces hysteresis loops with a pinched point at low frequencies between 0.1mHz and 1mHz. At high frequencies, the pinched hysteresis loop transforms to a non-pinched hysteresis loop instead of a single line I=U/R for ideal memristors because the amplitude of electrical current depends on capacitance of a flower's tissue and electrodes, frequency and direction of scanning. The discovery of memristors in Sunpatiens (Impatiens spp.) creates a new direction in the modelling and understanding of electrophysiological phenomena in flowers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander G Volkov
- Department of Chemistry, Oakwood University, 7000 Adventist Blvd, Huntsville, AL 35896, USA
| | - Eunice K Nyasani
- Department of Chemistry, Oakwood University, 7000 Adventist Blvd, Huntsville, AL 35896, USA
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Cyclic voltammetry of apple fruits: Memristors in vivo. Bioelectrochemistry 2016; 112:9-15. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2016.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2016] [Revised: 07/03/2016] [Accepted: 07/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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Volkov AG, Nyasani EK, Tuckett C, Scott JM, Jackson MMZ, Greeman EA, Greenidge AS, Cohen DO, Volkova MI, Shtessel YB. Electrotonic potentials in Aloe vera L.: Effects of intercellular and external electrodes arrangement. Bioelectrochemistry 2016; 113:60-68. [PMID: 27756010 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2016.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2016] [Revised: 10/07/2016] [Accepted: 10/10/2016] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Electrostimulation of plants can induce plant movements, activation of ion channels, ion transport, gene expression, enzymatic systems activation, electrical signaling, plant-cell damage, enhanced wound healing, and influence plant growth. Here we found that electrical networks in plant tissues have electrical differentiators. The amplitude of electrical responses decreases along a leaf and increases by decreasing the distance between polarizing Pt-electrodes. Intercellular Ag/AgCl electrodes inserted in a leaf and extracellular Ag/AgCl electrodes attached to the leaf surface were used to detect the electrotonic potential propagation along a leaf of Aloe vera. There is a difference in duration and amplitude of electrical potentials measured by electrodes inserted in a leaf and those attached to a leaf's surface. If the external reference electrode is located in the soil near the root, it changes the amplitude and duration of electrotonic potentials due to existence of additional resistance, capacitance, ion channels and ion pumps in the root. The information gained from this study can be used to elucidate extracellular and intercellular communication in the form of electrical signals within plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander G Volkov
- Department of Chemistry, Oakwood University, 7000 Adventist Blvd., Huntsville, AL 35896, USA.
| | - Eunice K Nyasani
- Department of Chemistry, Oakwood University, 7000 Adventist Blvd., Huntsville, AL 35896, USA
| | - Clayton Tuckett
- Department of Chemistry, Oakwood University, 7000 Adventist Blvd., Huntsville, AL 35896, USA
| | - Jessenia M Scott
- Department of Chemistry, Oakwood University, 7000 Adventist Blvd., Huntsville, AL 35896, USA
| | - Mariah M Z Jackson
- Department of Chemistry, Oakwood University, 7000 Adventist Blvd., Huntsville, AL 35896, USA
| | - Esther A Greeman
- Department of Chemistry, Oakwood University, 7000 Adventist Blvd., Huntsville, AL 35896, USA
| | - Ariane S Greenidge
- Department of Chemistry, Oakwood University, 7000 Adventist Blvd., Huntsville, AL 35896, USA
| | - Devin O Cohen
- Department of Chemistry, Oakwood University, 7000 Adventist Blvd., Huntsville, AL 35896, USA
| | - Maia I Volkova
- Department of Chemistry, Oakwood University, 7000 Adventist Blvd., Huntsville, AL 35896, USA
| | - Yuri B Shtessel
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, AL 35899, USA
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G. Volkov A, B. Shtessel Y. Propagation of electrotonic potentials in plants: Experimental study and mathematical modeling. AIMS BIOPHYSICS 2016. [DOI: 10.3934/biophy.2016.3.358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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Volkov AG, Nyasani EK, Tuckett C, Greeman EA, Markin VS. Electrophysiology of pumpkin seeds: Memristors in vivo. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2016; 11:e1151600. [PMID: 26926652 PMCID: PMC4883829 DOI: 10.1080/15592324.2016.1151600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2016] [Revised: 01/31/2016] [Accepted: 02/01/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Leon Chua, the discoverer of a memristor, theoretically predicted that voltage gated ion channels can be memristors. We recently found memristors in different plants such as the Venus flytrap, Mimosa pudica, Aloe vera, apple fruits, and in potato tubers. There are no publications in literature about the existence of memristors in seeds. The goal of this work was to discover if pumpkin seeds might have memristors. We selected Cucurbita pepo L., cv. Cinderella, Cucurbita maxima L. cv Warty Goblin, and Cucurbita maxima L., cv. Jarrahdale seeds for this analysis. In these seeds, we found the presence of resistors with memory. The analysis was based on cyclic voltammetry where a memristor should manifest itself as a nonlinear two-terminal electrical element, which exhibits a pinched hysteresis loop on a current-voltage plane for any bipolar cyclic voltage input signal. Dry dormant pumpkin seeds have very high electrical resistance without memristive properties. The electrostimulation by bipolar sinusoidal or triangular periodic waves induces electrical responses in imbibed pumpkin seeds with fingerprints of memristors. Tetraethylammonium chloride, an inhibitor of voltage gated K(+) channels, transforms a memristor to a resistor in pumpkin seeds. NPPB (5-Nitro-2-(3-phenylpropylamino)benzoic acid) inhibits the memristive properties of imbibed pumpkin seeds. The discovery of memristors in pumpkin seeds creates a new direction in the understanding of electrophysiological phenomena in seeds.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Eunice K Nyasani
- a Department of Chemistry , Oakwood University , Huntsville , AL , USA
| | - Clayton Tuckett
- a Department of Chemistry , Oakwood University , Huntsville , AL , USA
| | - Esther A Greeman
- a Department of Chemistry , Oakwood University , Huntsville , AL , USA
| | - Vladislav S Markin
- b Department of Neurology , University of Texas, Southwestern Medical Center , Dallas , TX , USA
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Volkov AG, Nyasani EK, Blockmon AL, Volkova MI. Memristors: Memory elements in potato tubers. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2015; 10:e1071750. [PMID: 26237427 PMCID: PMC4883904 DOI: 10.1080/15592324.2015.1071750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2015] [Revised: 07/05/2015] [Accepted: 07/07/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
A memristor is a nonlinear element because its current-voltage characteristic is similar to that of a Lissajous pattern for nonlinear systems. This element was postulated recently and researchers are looking for it in different biosystems. We investigated electrical circuitry of red Irish potato tubers (Solanum tuberosum L.). The goal was to discover if potato tubers might have a new electrical component - a resistor with memory. The analysis was based on a cyclic current-voltage characteristic where the resistor with memory should manifest itself. We found that the electrostimulation by bipolar sinusoidal or triangle periodic waves induces electrical responses in the potato tubers with fingerprints of memristors. Tetraethylammonium chloride, an inhibitor of voltage gated K(+) channels, transforms a memristor to a resistor in potato tubers. Our results demonstrate that a voltage gated K(+) channel in the excitable tissue of potato tubers has properties of a memristor. Uncoupler carbonylcyanide-4-trifluoromethoxy-phenyl hydrazone decreases the amplitude of electrical responses at low and high frequencies of bipolar periodic sinusoidal or triangle electrostimulating waves. The discovery of memristors in plants creates a new direction in the understanding of electrical phenomena in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Maya I Volkova
- Department of Chemistry; Oakwood University; Huntsville, AL USA
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Volkov AG, Reedus J, Mitchell CM, Tuckett C, Volkova MI, Markin VS, Chua L. Memory elements in the electrical network of Mimosa pudica L. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2014; 9:e982029. [PMID: 25482796 PMCID: PMC4623388 DOI: 10.4161/15592324.2014.982029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2014] [Revised: 07/26/2014] [Accepted: 07/28/2014] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The fourth basic circuit element, a memristor, is a resistor with memory that was postulated by Chua in 1971. Here we found that memristors exist in vivo. The electrostimulation of the Mimosa pudica by bipolar sinusoidal or triangle periodic waves induce electrical responses with fingerprints of memristors. Uncouplers carbonylcyanide-3-chlorophenylhydrazone and carbonylcyanide-4-trifluoromethoxy-phenyl hydrazone decrease the amplitude of electrical responses at low and high frequencies of bipolar sinusoidal or triangle periodic electrostimulating waves. Memristive behavior of an electrical network in the Mimosa pudica is linked to the properties of voltage gated ion channels: the channel blocker TEACl reduces the electric response to a conventional resistor. Our results demonstrate that a voltage gated K(+) channel in the excitable tissue of plants has properties of a memristor. The discovery of memristors in plants creates a new direction in the modeling and understanding of electrical phenomena in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander G Volkov
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry; Oakwood University; Huntsville, AL USA
- Correspondence to: Alexander G Volkov;
| | - Jada Reedus
- Department of Neurology; University of Texas; Southwestern Medical Center; Dallas, TX USA
| | - Colee M Mitchell
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry; Oakwood University; Huntsville, AL USA
| | - Clayton Tuckett
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry; Oakwood University; Huntsville, AL USA
| | - Maya I Volkova
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry; Oakwood University; Huntsville, AL USA
| | - Vladislav S Markin
- Department of Neurology; University of Texas; Southwestern Medical Center; Dallas, TX USA
| | - Leon Chua
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences; University of California, Berkeley; Berkeley, CA USA
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Markin VS, Volkov AG, Chua L. An analytical model of memristors in plants. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2014; 9:e972887. [PMID: 25482769 PMCID: PMC4622502 DOI: 10.4161/15592316.2014.972887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2014] [Revised: 07/14/2014] [Accepted: 07/23/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The memristor, a resistor with memory, was postulated by Chua in 1971 and the first solid-state memristor was built in 2008. Recently, we found memristors in vivo in plants. Here we propose a simple analytical model of 2 types of memristors that can be found within plants. The electrostimulation of plants by bipolar periodic waves induces electrical responses in the Aloe vera and Mimosa pudica with fingerprints of memristors. Memristive properties of the Aloe vera and Mimosa pudica are linked to the properties of voltage gated K(+) ion channels. The potassium channel blocker TEACl transform plant memristors to conventional resistors. The analytical model of a memristor with a capacitor connected in parallel exhibits different characteristic behavior at low and high frequency of applied voltage, which is the same as experimental data obtained by cyclic voltammetry in vivo.
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Key Words
- Aloe vera
- Bioelectrochemistry
- C, capacitance
- DAQ, data acquisition
- G, meminductance
- I, electrical current
- Mimosa pudica
- PXI, PCI eXtensions for Instrumentation
- TEACl, tetraethylammonium chloride
- V, voltage
- VFG, voltage of a function generator
- VR, voltage on resistor R
- Vp, voltage between electrodes in plants
- cyclic voltammetry
- electrophysiology
- ion channel
- memristor
- signal transduction
- t, time
- τ, delay time
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladislav S Markin
- Department of Neurology; University of Texas, Southwestern Medical Center; Dallas, TX USA
| | - Alexander G Volkov
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry; Oakwood University; Huntsville, AL USA
| | - Leon Chua
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences; University of California, Berkeley; Berkeley CA USA
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