The speed of intracellular signal transfer for chloroplast movement

Molecular insights into the phototropin control of chloroplast movements

Chloroplast movements are controlled by ultraviolet/blue light through phototropins. In Arabidopsis thaliana, chloroplast accumulation at low light intensities and chloroplast avoidance at high light intensities are observed. These responses are controlled by two homologous photoreceptors, the phototropins phot1 and phot2. Whereas chloroplast accumulation is triggered by both phototropins in a partially redundant manner, sustained chloroplast avoidance is elicited only by phot2. Phot1 is able to trigger only a small, transient chloroplast avoidance, followed by the accumulation phase. The source of this functional difference is not fully understood at either the photoreceptor or the signalling pathway levels. In this article, we review current understanding of phototropin functioning and try to dissect the differences that result in signalling to elicit two distinct chloroplast responses. First, we focus on phototropin structure and photochemical and biochemical activity. Next, we analyse phototropin expression and localization patterns. We also summarize known photoreceptor systems controlling chloroplast movements. Finally, we focus on the role of environmental stimuli in controlling phototropin activity. All these aspects impact the signalling to trigger chloroplast movements and raise outstanding questions about the mechanism involved.

Ferns, mosses and liverworts as model systems for light-mediated chloroplast movements

Light-induced chloroplast movement is found in most plant species, including algae and land plants. In land plants with multiple small chloroplasts, under weak light conditions, the chloroplasts move towards the light and accumulate on the periclinal cell walls to efficiently perceive light for photosynthesis (the accumulation response). Under strong light conditions, chloroplasts escape from light to avoid photodamage (the avoidance response). In most plant species, blue light induces chloroplast movement, and phototropin receptor kinases are the blue light receptors. Molecular mechanisms for photoreceptors, signal transduction and chloroplast motility systems are being studied using the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. However, to further understand the molecular mechanisms and evolutionary history of chloroplast movement in green plants, analyses using other plant systems are required. Here, we review recent works on chloroplast movement in green algae, liverwort, mosses and ferns that provide new insights on chloroplast movement.

Chloroplast and nuclear photorelocation movements

Chloroplasts move toward weak light to increase photosynthetic efficiency, and migrate away from strong light to protect chloroplasts from photodamage and eventual cell death. These chloroplast behaviors were first observed more than 100 years ago, but the underlying mechanism has only recently been identified. Ideal plant materials, such as fern gametophytes for photobiological and cell biological approaches, and Arabidopsis thaliana for genetic analyses, have been used along with sophisticated methods, such as partial cell irradiation and time-lapse video recording under infrared light to study chloroplast movement. These studies have revealed precise chloroplast behavior, and identified photoreceptors, other relevant protein components, and novel actin filament structures required for chloroplast movement. In this review, our findings regarding chloroplast and nuclear movements are described.

Chloroplasts can move in any direction to avoid strong light

Chloroplasts migrate in response to different light intensities. Under weak light, chloroplasts gather at an illuminated area to maximize light absorption and photosynthesis rates (the accumulation response). In contrast, chloroplasts escape from strong light to avoid photodamage (the avoidance response). Photoreceptors involved in these phenomena have been identified in Arabidopsis thaliana and Adiantum capillus-veneris. Chloroplast behavior has been studied in detail during the accumulation response, but not for the avoidance response. Hence, we analyzed the chloroplast avoidance response in detail using dark-adapted Adiantum capillus-veneris gametophyte cells and partial cell irradiation with a microbeam of blue light. Chloroplasts escaped from an irradiated spot. Both duration of this response and the distance of the migrated chloroplasts were proportional to the total fluence irradiated. The speed of movement during the avoidance response was dependent on the fluence rate, but the speed of the accumulation response towards the microbeam from cell periphery was constant irrespective of fluence rate. When a chloroplast was only partially irradiated with a strong microbeam, it moved away towards the non-irradiated region within a few minutes. During this avoidance response two additional microbeam irradiations were applied to different locus of the same chloroplast. Under these conditions the chloroplast changed the moving direction after a lag time of a few minutes without rolling. Taken together, these findings indicate that chloroplasts can move in any direction and never have an intrinsic polarity. Similar phenomenon was observed in chloroplasts of Arabidopsis thaliana palisade cells.