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Mello DF, Perez L, Bergemann CM, Morton KS, Ryde IT, Meyer JN. Comprehensive characterization of mitochondrial bioenergetics at different larval stages reveals novel insights about the developmental metabolism of Caenorhabditis elegans. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.06.26.600841. [PMID: 38979262 PMCID: PMC11230424 DOI: 10.1101/2024.06.26.600841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/10/2024]
Abstract
Mitochondrial bioenergetic processes are fundamental to development, stress responses, and health. Caenorhabditis elegans is widely used to study developmental biology, mitochondrial disease, and mitochondrial toxicity. Oxidative phosphorylation generally increases during development in many species, and genetic and environmental factors may alter this normal trajectory. Altered mitochondrial function during development can lead to both drastic, short-term responses including arrested development and death, and subtle consequences that may persist throughout life and into subsequent generations. Understanding normal and altered developmental mitochondrial biology in C. elegans is currently constrained by incomplete and conflicting reports on how mitochondrial bioenergetic parameters change during development in this species. We used a Seahorse XFe24 Extracellular Flux (XF) Analyzer to carry out a comprehensive analysis of mitochondrial and non-mitochondrial oxygen consumption rates (OCR) throughout larval development in C. elegans. We optimized and describe conditions for analysis of basal OCR, basal mitochondrial OCR, ATP-linked OCR, spare and maximal respiratory capacity, proton leak, and non-mitochondrial OCR. A key consideration is normalization, and we present and discuss results as normalized per individual worm, protein content, worm volume, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) count, nuclear DNA (ncDNA) count, and mtDNA:ncDNA ratio. Which normalization process is best depends on the question being asked, and differences in normalization explain some of the discrepancies in previously reported developmental changes in OCR in C. elegans. Broadly, when normalized to worm number, our results agree with previous reports in showing dramatic increases in OCR throughout development. However, when normalized to total protein, worm volume, or ncDNA or mtDNA count, after a significant 2-3-fold increase from L1 to L2 stages, we found small or no changes in most OCR parameters from the L2 to the L4 stage, other than a marginal increase at L3 in spare and maximal respiratory capacity. Overall, our results indicate an earlier cellular shift to oxidative metabolism than suggested in most previous literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle F Mello
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Box 90328, Durham, NC, 27708-0328 United States of America
| | - Luiza Perez
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Box 90328, Durham, NC, 27708-0328 United States of America
| | - Christina M Bergemann
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Box 90328, Durham, NC, 27708-0328 United States of America
| | - Katherine S Morton
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Box 90328, Durham, NC, 27708-0328 United States of America
| | - Ian T Ryde
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Box 90328, Durham, NC, 27708-0328 United States of America
| | - Joel N Meyer
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Box 90328, Durham, NC, 27708-0328 United States of America
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2
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Cheng Q, Liu QQ, Lu CA. A state-of-the-science review of using mitochondrial DNA copy number as a biomarker for environmental exposure. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2024; 346:123642. [PMID: 38402934 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2024.123642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2023] [Revised: 02/06/2024] [Accepted: 02/22/2024] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
Mitochondria are bioenergetic, biosynthetic, and signaling organelles in eukaryotes, and contain their own genomes, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), to supply energy to cells by generating ATP via oxidative phosphorylation. Therefore, the threat to mitochondria' integrity and health resulting from environmental exposure could induce adverse health effects in organisms. In this review, we summarized the association between mtDNA copy number (mtDNAcn), and environmental exposures as reported in the literature. We conducted a literature search in the Web of Science using [Mitochondrial DNA copy number] and [Exposure] as two keywords and employed three selection criteria for the final inclusion of 97 papers for review. The consensus of data was that mtDNAcn could be used as a plausible biomarker for cumulative exposures to environmental chemical and physical agents. In order to furtherly expand the application of mtDNAcn in ecological and environmental health research, we suggested a series of algorithms aiming to standardize the calculation of mtDNAcn based on the PCR results in this review. We also discussed the pitfalls of using whole blood/plasma samples for mtDNAcn measurements and regard buccal cells a plausible and practical alternative. Finally, we recognized the importance of better understanding the mechanistic analysis and regulatory mechanism of mtDNAcn, in particular the signals release and regulation pathways. We believe that the development of using mtDNAcn as an exposure biomarker will revolutionize the evaluation of chronic sub-lethal toxicity of chemicals to organisms in ecological and environmental health research that has not yet been implemented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Cheng
- College of Resources and Environment, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, People's Republic of China
| | - Qing Qing Liu
- College of Resources and Environment, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, People's Republic of China
| | - Chensheng Alex Lu
- College of Resources and Environment, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, People's Republic of China; School of Public Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA.
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3
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Campbell D, Zuryn S. The mechanisms and roles of mitochondrial dynamics in C. elegans. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2024; 156:266-275. [PMID: 37919144 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2023.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2023] [Revised: 10/15/2023] [Accepted: 10/26/2023] [Indexed: 11/04/2023]
Abstract
If mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell, then mitochondrial dynamics are the power grid that regulates how that energy output is directed and maintained in response to unique physiological demands. Fission and fusion dynamics are highly regulated processes that fine-tune the mitochondrial networks of cells to enable appropriate responses to intrinsic and extrinsic stimuli, thereby maintaining cellular and organismal homeostasis. These dynamics shape many aspects of an organism's healthspan including development, longevity, stress resistance, immunity, and response to disease. In this review, we discuss the latest findings regarding the mechanisms and roles of mitochondrial dynamics by focussing on the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Whole live-animal studies in C. elegans have enabled a true organismal-level understanding of the impact that mitochondrial dynamics play in homeostasis over a lifetime.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Campbell
- Clem Jones Centre for Ageing Dementia Research, Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Steven Zuryn
- Clem Jones Centre for Ageing Dementia Research, Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia.
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4
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Ma L, Li X, Liu C, Yan W, Ma J, Petersen RB, Peng A, Huang K. Modelling Parkinson's Disease in C. elegans: Strengths and Limitations. Curr Pharm Des 2022; 28:3033-3048. [PMID: 36111767 DOI: 10.2174/1381612828666220915103502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disease that affects the motor system and progressively worsens with age. Current treatment options for PD mainly target symptoms, due to our limited understanding of the etiology and pathophysiology of PD. A variety of preclinical models have been developed to study different aspects of the disease. The models have been used to elucidate the pathogenesis and for testing new treatments. These models include cell models, non-mammalian models, rodent models, and non-human primate models. Over the past few decades, Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) has been widely adopted as a model system due to its small size, transparent body, short generation time and life cycle, fully sequenced genome, the tractability of genetic manipulation and suitability for large scale screening for disease modifiers. Here, we review studies using C. elegans as a model for PD and highlight the strengths and limitations of the C. elegans model. Various C. elegans PD models, including neurotoxin-induced models and genetic models, are described in detail. Moreover, met.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Ma
- Department of Pharmacy, Wuhan Mental Health Center, Wuhan, China.,Department of Pharmacy, Wuhan Hospital for Psychotherapy, Wuhan, China
| | - Xi Li
- Tongji School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Chengyu Liu
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, Wuhan Hospital of Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Wanyao Yan
- Department of Pharmacy, Wuhan Fourth Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Jinlu Ma
- Human Resources Department, Wuhan Mental Health Center, Wuhan, China.,Human Resources Department, Wuhan Hospital for Psychotherapy, Wuhan, China
| | - Robert B Petersen
- Foundational Sciences, Central Michigan University College of Medicine, Mount Pleasant, MI, USA
| | - Anlin Peng
- Department of Pharmacy, The Third Hospital of Wuhan, Tongren Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Kun Huang
- Tongji School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
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5
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Leuthner T, Benzing L, Kohrn B, Bergemann C, Hipp M, Hershberger K, Mello D, Sokolskyi T, Stevenson K, Merutka I, Seay S, Gregory S, Kennedy S, Meyer J. Resistance of mitochondrial DNA to cadmium and Aflatoxin B1 damage-induced germline mutation accumulation in C. elegans. Nucleic Acids Res 2022; 50:8626-8642. [PMID: 35947695 PMCID: PMC9410910 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkac666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Revised: 07/11/2022] [Accepted: 07/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is prone to mutation in aging and over evolutionary time, yet the processes that regulate the accumulation of de novo mtDNA mutations and modulate mtDNA heteroplasmy are not fully elucidated. Mitochondria lack certain DNA repair processes, which could contribute to polymerase error-induced mutations and increase susceptibility to chemical-induced mtDNA mutagenesis. We conducted error-corrected, ultra-sensitive Duplex Sequencing to investigate the effects of two known nuclear genome mutagens, cadmium and Aflatoxin B1, on germline mtDNA mutagenesis in Caenorhabditis elegans. Detection of thousands of mtDNA mutations revealed pervasive heteroplasmy in C. elegans and that mtDNA mutagenesis is dominated by C:G → A:T mutations generally attributed to oxidative damage. However, there was no effect of either exposure on mtDNA mutation frequency, spectrum, or trinucleotide context signature despite a significant increase in nuclear mutation rate after aflatoxin B1 exposure. Mitophagy-deficient mutants pink-1 and dct-1 accumulated significantly higher levels of mtDNA damage compared to wild-type C. elegans after exposures. However, there were only small differences in mtDNA mutation frequency, spectrum, or trinucleotide context signature compared to wild-type after 3050 generations, across all treatments. These findings suggest mitochondria harbor additional previously uncharacterized mechanisms that regulate mtDNA mutational processes across generations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tess C Leuthner
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Laura Benzing
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Brendan F Kohrn
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | | | - Michael J Hipp
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | | | - Danielle F Mello
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Tymofii Sokolskyi
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Kevin Stevenson
- Duke Molecular Physiology Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC 27701, USA
| | - Ilaria R Merutka
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Sarah A Seay
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Simon G Gregory
- Duke Molecular Physiology Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC 27701, USA,Department of Neurology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Scott R Kennedy
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Joel N Meyer
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel: +1 919 613 8109;
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6
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Nadalutti CA, Ayala-Peña S, Santos JH. Mitochondrial DNA damage as driver of cellular outcomes. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2022; 322:C136-C150. [PMID: 34936503 PMCID: PMC8799395 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00389.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Mitochondria are primarily involved in energy production through the process of oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). Increasing evidence has shown that mitochondrial function impacts a plethora of different cellular activities, including metabolism, epigenetics, and innate immunity. Like the nucleus, mitochondria own their genetic material, but this organellar genome is circular, present in multiple copies, and maternally inherited. The mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) encodes 37 genes that are solely involved in OXPHOS. Maintenance of mtDNA, through replication and repair, requires the import of nuclear DNA-encoded proteins. Thus, mitochondria completely rely on the nucleus to prevent mitochondrial genetic alterations. As most cells contain hundreds to thousands of mitochondria, it follows that the shear number of organelles allows for the buffering of dysfunction-at least to some extent-before tissue homeostasis becomes impaired. Only red blood cells lack mitochondria entirely. Impaired mitochondrial function is a hallmark of aging and is involved in a number of different disorders, including neurodegenerative diseases, diabetes, cancer, and autoimmunity. Although alterations in mitochondrial processes unrelated to OXPHOS, such as fusion and fission, contribute to aging and disease, maintenance of mtDNA integrity is critical for proper organellar function. Here, we focus on how mtDNA damage contributes to cellular dysfunction and health outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina A. Nadalutti
- 1Mechanistic Toxicology Branch, Division of the National Toxicology
Program (DNTP), National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| | - Sylvette Ayala-Peña
- 2Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Puerto Rico Medical Sciences Campus, San Juan, Puerto Rico
| | - Janine H. Santos
- 1Mechanistic Toxicology Branch, Division of the National Toxicology
Program (DNTP), National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
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7
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Bastioli G, Regoni M, Cazzaniga F, De Luca CMG, Bistaffa E, Zanetti L, Moda F, Valtorta F, Sassone J. Animal Models of Autosomal Recessive Parkinsonism. Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9070812. [PMID: 34356877 PMCID: PMC8301401 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9070812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2021] [Revised: 07/05/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the most common neurodegenerative movement disorder. The neuropathological hallmark of the disease is the loss of dopamine neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta. The clinical manifestations of PD are bradykinesia, rigidity, resting tremors and postural instability. PD patients often display non-motor symptoms such as depression, anxiety, weakness, sleep disturbances and cognitive disorders. Although, in 90% of cases, PD has a sporadic onset of unknown etiology, highly penetrant rare genetic mutations in many genes have been linked with typical familial PD. Understanding the mechanisms behind the DA neuron death in these Mendelian forms may help to illuminate the pathogenesis of DA neuron degeneration in the more common forms of PD. A key step in the identification of the molecular pathways underlying DA neuron death, and in the development of therapeutic strategies, is the creation and characterization of animal models that faithfully recapitulate the human disease. In this review, we outline the current status of PD modeling using mouse, rat and non-mammalian models, focusing on animal models for autosomal recessive PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guendalina Bastioli
- Division of Neuroscience, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, 20132 Milan, Italy; (G.B.); (M.R.); (L.Z.); (F.V.)
- Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Maria Regoni
- Division of Neuroscience, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, 20132 Milan, Italy; (G.B.); (M.R.); (L.Z.); (F.V.)
- Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Federico Cazzaniga
- Division of Neurology 5 and Neuropathology, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, 20133 Milan, Italy; (F.C.); (C.M.G.D.L.); (E.B.); (F.M.)
| | - Chiara Maria Giulia De Luca
- Division of Neurology 5 and Neuropathology, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, 20133 Milan, Italy; (F.C.); (C.M.G.D.L.); (E.B.); (F.M.)
- Laboratory of Prion Biology, Department of Neuroscience, Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati, 34136 Trieste, Italy
| | - Edoardo Bistaffa
- Division of Neurology 5 and Neuropathology, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, 20133 Milan, Italy; (F.C.); (C.M.G.D.L.); (E.B.); (F.M.)
| | - Letizia Zanetti
- Division of Neuroscience, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, 20132 Milan, Italy; (G.B.); (M.R.); (L.Z.); (F.V.)
- Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Fabio Moda
- Division of Neurology 5 and Neuropathology, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, 20133 Milan, Italy; (F.C.); (C.M.G.D.L.); (E.B.); (F.M.)
| | - Flavia Valtorta
- Division of Neuroscience, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, 20132 Milan, Italy; (G.B.); (M.R.); (L.Z.); (F.V.)
- Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Jenny Sassone
- Division of Neuroscience, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, 20132 Milan, Italy; (G.B.); (M.R.); (L.Z.); (F.V.)
- Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, 20132 Milan, Italy
- Correspondence:
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8
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Telomerase Impinges on the Cellular Response to Oxidative Stress Through Mitochondrial ROS-Mediated Regulation of Autophagy. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20061509. [PMID: 30917518 PMCID: PMC6470917 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20061509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2019] [Revised: 03/15/2019] [Accepted: 03/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Telomerase has cellular functions beyond telomere stabilization, including a role in mitochondria. The function of the catalytic component—TERT—in mitochondria is still unknown, but it seems to play a role in the response to oxidative stress. Here, we interrogated the role of the subcellular localization of TERT to the response to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) treatment. Using normal human fibroblasts (NHF) expressing non-tagged wild type (WT) human TERT (hTERT) or nuclear localization and function (nuchTERT), a mutant that we previously described as being competent in telomere elongation, while not being able to localize to mitochondria, we found the differential activation of autophagy as a function of hTERT’s subcellular localization. Specifically, we found that only cells expressing the mutant had significant increases in autophagy markers as a response to H2O2 challenge. Either the reintroduction of the mitochondrial pool of hTERT or the expression of mitochondrially-targeted catalase in mutant cells blunted the autophagic response under oxidative stress. Interestingly, autophagy activation was also associated with decreased levels of mitochondrial DNA damage. Taken together, these results suggest that the loss of hTERT in mitochondria initiates a signaling cascade that allows for cells to adapt to and cope with the lack of mitochondrial telomerase. Such effects also influence the cellular response to oxidative damage.
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9
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Wu E, Wang Y, Shen L, Yahuza L, Tian J, Yang L, Shang L, Zhu W, Zhan J. Strategies of Phytophthora infestans adaptation to local UV radiation conditions. Evol Appl 2019; 12:415-424. [PMID: 30828364 PMCID: PMC6383706 DOI: 10.1111/eva.12722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2018] [Revised: 09/23/2018] [Accepted: 09/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Expected global changes in environmental conditions underline the need for a better understanding of genetic variation in ecological traits and their strategies of adaptation to the stresses. In this study, evolutionary mechanisms and processes of UV adaptation in plant pathogens were investigated by combining statistical genetics, physiological assays, and common garden experiment approaches in an assessment of the potato late blight pathogen, Phytophthora infestans, sampled from various geographic locations in China. We found spatial divergence caused by diversifying selection in UV tolerance among P. infestans populations. Local UV radiation was the driving force of selection as indicated by a positive correlation between UV tolerance in P. infestans populations and the altitude of collection sites. Plasticity accounted for 68% of population variation while heritability was negligible, suggesting temporary changes in gene expression and/or enzymatic activity play a more important role than permanent modification of gene structure in the evolution of UV adaptation. This adaptation strategy may explain the lack of fitness penalty observed in genotypes with higher UV tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- E‐Jiao Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control for Fujian and Taiwan CropsFujian Agriculture and Forestry UniversityFuzhouFujianChina
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Plant Virology, Institute of Plant VirologyFujian Agricultural and Forestry UniversityFuzhouFujianChina
| | - Yan‐Ping Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control for Fujian and Taiwan CropsFujian Agriculture and Forestry UniversityFuzhouFujianChina
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Plant Virology, Institute of Plant VirologyFujian Agricultural and Forestry UniversityFuzhouFujianChina
| | - Lin‐Lin Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control for Fujian and Taiwan CropsFujian Agriculture and Forestry UniversityFuzhouFujianChina
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Plant Virology, Institute of Plant VirologyFujian Agricultural and Forestry UniversityFuzhouFujianChina
| | - Lurwanu Yahuza
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control for Fujian and Taiwan CropsFujian Agriculture and Forestry UniversityFuzhouFujianChina
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Plant Virology, Institute of Plant VirologyFujian Agricultural and Forestry UniversityFuzhouFujianChina
| | - Ji‐Chen Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control for Fujian and Taiwan CropsFujian Agriculture and Forestry UniversityFuzhouFujianChina
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Plant Virology, Institute of Plant VirologyFujian Agricultural and Forestry UniversityFuzhouFujianChina
| | - Li‐Na Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control for Fujian and Taiwan CropsFujian Agriculture and Forestry UniversityFuzhouFujianChina
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Plant Virology, Institute of Plant VirologyFujian Agricultural and Forestry UniversityFuzhouFujianChina
| | - Li‐Ping Shang
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control for Fujian and Taiwan CropsFujian Agriculture and Forestry UniversityFuzhouFujianChina
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Plant Virology, Institute of Plant VirologyFujian Agricultural and Forestry UniversityFuzhouFujianChina
| | - Wen Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control for Fujian and Taiwan CropsFujian Agriculture and Forestry UniversityFuzhouFujianChina
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Plant Virology, Institute of Plant VirologyFujian Agricultural and Forestry UniversityFuzhouFujianChina
| | - Jiasui Zhan
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control for Fujian and Taiwan CropsFujian Agriculture and Forestry UniversityFuzhouFujianChina
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Plant Virology, Institute of Plant VirologyFujian Agricultural and Forestry UniversityFuzhouFujianChina
- Department of Forest Mycology and Plant PathologySwedish University of Agricultural SciencesUppsalaSweden
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10
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Scholtes C, Bellemin S, Martin E, Carre-Pierrat M, Mollereau B, Gieseler K, Walter L. DRP-1-mediated apoptosis induces muscle degeneration in dystrophin mutants. Sci Rep 2018; 8:7354. [PMID: 29743663 PMCID: PMC5943356 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-25727-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2018] [Accepted: 04/03/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria are double-membrane subcellular organelles with highly conserved metabolic functions including ATP production. Mitochondria shapes change continually through the combined actions of fission and fusion events rendering mitochondrial network very dynamic. Mitochondria are largely implicated in pathologies and mitochondrial dynamics is often disrupted upon muscle degeneration in various models. Currently, the exact roles of mitochondria in the molecular mechanisms that lead to muscle degeneration remain poorly understood. Here we report a role for DRP-1 in regulating apoptosis induced by dystrophin-dependent muscle degeneration. We found that: (i) dystrophin-dependent muscle degeneration was accompanied by a drastic increase in mitochondrial fragmentation that can be rescued by genetic manipulations of mitochondrial dynamics (ii) the loss of function of the fission gene drp-1 or the overexpression of the fusion genes eat-3 and fzo-1 provoked a reduction of muscle degeneration and an improved mobility of dystrophin mutant worms (iii) the functions of DRP-1 in apoptosis and of others apoptosis executors are important for dystrophin-dependent muscle cell death (iv) DRP-1-mediated apoptosis is also likely to induce age-dependent loss of muscle cell. Collectively, our findings point toward a mechanism involving mitochondrial dynamics to respond to trigger(s) of muscle degeneration via apoptosis in Caenorhabditis elegans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Scholtes
- Laboratory of Biology and Modelling of the Cell, UMR5239 CNRS/Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, UMS 3444 Biosciences Lyon Gerland, Universite de Lyon, Lyon, 69007, France.,NeuroMyoGene Institute (INMG), Universite Lyon 1, CNRS UMR 5310, INSERM U1217, Lyon 69008, France
| | - Stéphanie Bellemin
- NeuroMyoGene Institute (INMG), Universite Lyon 1, CNRS UMR 5310, INSERM U1217, Lyon 69008, France
| | - Edwige Martin
- NeuroMyoGene Institute (INMG), Universite Lyon 1, CNRS UMR 5310, INSERM U1217, Lyon 69008, France
| | - Maïté Carre-Pierrat
- Biology of Caenorhabditis elegans facility, Universite Lyon 1, UMS3421, Lyon 69008, France
| | - Bertrand Mollereau
- Laboratory of Biology and Modelling of the Cell, UMR5239 CNRS/Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, UMS 3444 Biosciences Lyon Gerland, Universite de Lyon, Lyon, 69007, France
| | - Kathrin Gieseler
- NeuroMyoGene Institute (INMG), Universite Lyon 1, CNRS UMR 5310, INSERM U1217, Lyon 69008, France.
| | - Ludivine Walter
- Laboratory of Biology and Modelling of the Cell, UMR5239 CNRS/Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, UMS 3444 Biosciences Lyon Gerland, Universite de Lyon, Lyon, 69007, France.
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11
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Meyer JN, Leuthner TC, Luz AL. Mitochondrial fusion, fission, and mitochondrial toxicity. Toxicology 2017; 391:42-53. [PMID: 28789970 PMCID: PMC5681418 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2017.07.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 322] [Impact Index Per Article: 46.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2017] [Revised: 07/10/2017] [Accepted: 07/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondrial dynamics are regulated by two sets of opposed processes: mitochondrial fusion and fission, and mitochondrial biogenesis and degradation (including mitophagy), as well as processes such as intracellular transport. These processes maintain mitochondrial homeostasis, regulate mitochondrial form, volume and function, and are increasingly understood to be critical components of the cellular stress response. Mitochondrial dynamics vary based on developmental stage and age, cell type, environmental factors, and genetic background. Indeed, many mitochondrial homeostasis genes are human disease genes. Emerging evidence indicates that deficiencies in these genes often sensitize to environmental exposures, yet can also be protective under certain circumstances. Inhibition of mitochondrial dynamics also affects elimination of irreparable mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) damage and transmission of mtDNA mutations. We briefly review the basic biology of mitodynamic processes with a focus on mitochondrial fusion and fission, discuss what is known and unknown regarding how these processes respond to chemical and other stressors, and review the literature on interactions between mitochondrial toxicity and genetic variation in mitochondrial fusion and fission genes. Finally, we suggest areas for future research, including elucidating the full range of mitodynamic responses from low to high-level exposures, and from acute to chronic exposures; detailed examination of the physiological consequences of mitodynamic alterations in different cell types; mechanism-based testing of mitotoxicant interactions with interindividual variability in mitodynamics processes; and incorporating other environmental variables that affect mitochondria, such as diet and exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel N Meyer
- Nicholas School of the Environment and Integrated Toxicology and Environmental Health Program, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708-0328, United States.
| | - Tess C Leuthner
- Nicholas School of the Environment and Integrated Toxicology and Environmental Health Program, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708-0328, United States.
| | - Anthony L Luz
- Nicholas School of the Environment and Integrated Toxicology and Environmental Health Program, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708-0328, United States.
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Luz AL, Godebo TR, Smith LL, Leuthner TC, Maurer LL, Meyer JN. Deficiencies in mitochondrial dynamics sensitize Caenorhabditis elegans to arsenite and other mitochondrial toxicants by reducing mitochondrial adaptability. Toxicology 2017; 387:81-94. [PMID: 28602540 PMCID: PMC5535741 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2017.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2017] [Revised: 05/10/2017] [Accepted: 05/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Mitochondrial fission, fusion, and mitophagy are interlinked processes that regulate mitochondrial shape, number, and size, as well as metabolic activity and stress response. The fundamental importance of these processes is evident in the fact that mutations in fission (DRP1), fusion (MFN2, OPA1), and mitophagy (PINK1, PARK2) genes can cause human disease (collectively >1/10,000). Interestingly, however, the age of onset and severity of clinical manifestations varies greatly between patients with these diseases (even those harboring identical mutations), suggesting a role for environmental factors in the development and progression of certain mitochondrial diseases. Using the model organism Caenorhabditis elegans, we screened ten mitochondrial toxicants (2, 4-dinitrophenol, acetaldehyde, acrolein, aflatoxin B1, arsenite, cadmium, cisplatin, doxycycline, paraquat, rotenone) for increased or decreased toxicity in fusion (fzo-1, eat-3)-, fission (drp-1)-, and mitophagy (pdr-1, pink-1)-deficient nematodes using a larval growth assay. In general, fusion-deficient nematodes were the most sensitive to toxicants, including aflatoxin B1, arsenite, cisplatin, paraquat, and rotenone. Because arsenite was particularly potent in fission- and fusion-deficient nematodes, and hundreds of millions of people are chronically exposed to arsenic, we investigated the effects of these genetic deficiencies on arsenic toxicity in more depth. We found that deficiencies in fission and fusion sensitized nematodes to arsenite-induced lethality throughout aging. Furthermore, low-dose arsenite, which acted in a "mitohormetic" fashion by increasing mitochondrial function (in particular, basal and maximal oxygen consumption) in wild-type nematodes by a wide range of measures, exacerbated mitochondrial dysfunction in fusion-deficient nematodes. Analysis of multiple mechanistic changes suggested that disruption of pyruvate metabolism and Krebs cycle activity underlie the observed arsenite-induced mitochondrial deficits, and these disruptions are exacerbated in the absence of mitochondrial fusion. This research demonstrates the importance of mitochondrial dynamics in limiting arsenite toxicity by permitting mitochondrial adaptability. It also suggests that individuals suffering from deficiencies in mitodynamic processes may be more susceptible to the mitochondrial toxicity of arsenic and other toxicants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony L Luz
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Box 90328, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
| | - Tewodros R Godebo
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Box 90328, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
| | - Latasha L Smith
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Box 90328, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
| | - Tess C Leuthner
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Box 90328, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
| | - Laura L Maurer
- ExxonMobil Biomedical Sciences, Inc., Annandale, NJ, 08801-3059, USA
| | - Joel N Meyer
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Box 90328, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA.
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Luz AL, Lagido C, Hirschey MD, Meyer JN. In Vivo Determination of Mitochondrial Function Using Luciferase-Expressing Caenorhabditis elegans: Contribution of Oxidative Phosphorylation, Glycolysis, and Fatty Acid Oxidation to Toxicant-Induced Dysfunction. CURRENT PROTOCOLS IN TOXICOLOGY 2016; 69:25.8.1-25.8.22. [PMID: 27479364 PMCID: PMC5002950 DOI: 10.1002/cptx.10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondria are a target of many drugs and environmental toxicants; however, how toxicant-induced mitochondrial dysfunction contributes to the progression of human disease remains poorly understood. To address this issue, in vivo assays capable of rapidly assessing mitochondrial function need to be developed. Here, using the model organism Caenorhabditis elegans, we describe how to rapidly assess the in vivo role of the electron transport chain, glycolysis, or fatty acid oxidation in energy metabolism following toxicant exposure, using a luciferase-expressing ATP reporter strain. Alterations in mitochondrial function subsequent to toxicant exposure are detected by depleting steady-state ATP levels with inhibitors of the mitochondrial electron transport chain, glycolysis, or fatty acid oxidation. Differential changes in ATP following short-term inhibitor exposure indicate toxicant-induced alterations at the site of inhibition. Because a microplate reader is the only major piece of equipment required, this is a highly accessible method for studying toxicant-induced mitochondrial dysfunction in vivo. © 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony L. Luz
- Nicholas School of the Environment, PO Box 90328, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, 27708
| | - Cristina Lagido
- School of Medical Sciences, Institute of Medical Sciences, Aberdeen AB25 2 ZD, UK
| | - Matthew D. Hirschey
- Department of Medicine, 500 N. Duke St., 50-201, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, 27708
| | - Joel N. Meyer
- Nicholas School of the Environment, PO Box 90328, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, 27708
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Van Houten B, Hunter SE, Meyer JN. Mitochondrial DNA damage induced autophagy, cell death, and disease. Front Biosci (Landmark Ed) 2016; 21:42-54. [PMID: 26709760 DOI: 10.2741/4375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Mammalian mitochondria contain multiple small genomes. While these organelles have efficient base excision removal of oxidative DNA lesions and alkylation damage, many DNA repair systems that work on nuclear DNA damage are not active in mitochondria. What is the fate of DNA damage in the mitochondria that cannot be repaired or that overwhelms the repair system? Some forms of mitochondrial DNA damage can apparently trigger mitochondrial DNA destruction, either via direct degradation or through specific forms of autophagy, such as mitophagy. However, accumulation of certain types of mitochondrial damage, in the absence of DNA ligase III (Lig3) or exonuclease G (EXOG), can directly trigger cell death. This review examines the cellular effects of persistent damage to mitochondrial genomes and discusses the very different cell fates that occur in response to different kinds of damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bennett Van Houten
- Department of Pharmacology Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, 15213-1863,
| | - Senyene E Hunter
- School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27516
| | - Joel N Meyer
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708-0328
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Luz AL, Rooney JP, Kubik LL, Gonzalez CP, Song DH, Meyer JN. Mitochondrial Morphology and Fundamental Parameters of the Mitochondrial Respiratory Chain Are Altered in Caenorhabditis elegans Strains Deficient in Mitochondrial Dynamics and Homeostasis Processes. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0130940. [PMID: 26106885 PMCID: PMC4480853 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0130940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2015] [Accepted: 05/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial dysfunction has been linked to myriad human diseases and toxicant exposures, highlighting the need for assays capable of rapidly assessing mitochondrial health in vivo. Here, using the Seahorse XFe24 Analyzer and the pharmacological inhibitors dicyclohexylcarbodiimide and oligomycin (ATP-synthase inhibitors), carbonyl cyanide 4-(trifluoromethoxy) phenylhydrazone (mitochondrial uncoupler) and sodium azide (cytochrome c oxidase inhibitor), we measured the fundamental parameters of mitochondrial respiratory chain function: basal oxygen consumption, ATP-linked respiration, maximal respiratory capacity, spare respiratory capacity and proton leak in the model organism Caenhorhabditis elegans. Since mutations in mitochondrial homeostasis genes cause mitochondrial dysfunction and have been linked to human disease, we measured mitochondrial respiratory function in mitochondrial fission (drp-1)-, fusion (fzo-1)-, mitophagy (pdr-1, pink-1)-, and electron transport chain complex III (isp-1)-deficient C. elegans. All showed altered function, but the nature of the alterations varied between the tested strains. We report increased basal oxygen consumption in drp-1; reduced maximal respiration in drp-1, fzo-1, and isp-1; reduced spare respiratory capacity in drp-1 and fzo-1; reduced proton leak in fzo-1 and isp-1; and increased proton leak in pink-1 nematodes. As mitochondrial morphology can play a role in mitochondrial energetics, we also quantified the mitochondrial aspect ratio for each mutant strain using a novel method, and for the first time report increased aspect ratios in pdr-1- and pink-1-deficient nematodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony L. Luz
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - John P. Rooney
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Laura L. Kubik
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Claudia P. Gonzalez
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Dong Hoon Song
- Simulation Group, Samsung SDI, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Joel N. Meyer
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
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Shaughnessy DT, McAllister K, Worth L, Haugen AC, Meyer JN, Domann FE, Van Houten B, Mostoslavsky R, Bultman SJ, Baccarelli AA, Begley TJ, Sobol RW, Hirschey MD, Ideker T, Santos JH, Copeland WC, Tice RR, Balshaw DM, Tyson FL. Mitochondria, energetics, epigenetics, and cellular responses to stress. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2014; 122:1271-8. [PMID: 25127496 PMCID: PMC4256704 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.1408418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2014] [Accepted: 08/14/2014] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cells respond to environmental stressors through several key pathways, including response to reactive oxygen species (ROS), nutrient and ATP sensing, DNA damage response (DDR), and epigenetic alterations. Mitochondria play a central role in these pathways not only through energetics and ATP production but also through metabolites generated in the tricarboxylic acid cycle, as well as mitochondria-nuclear signaling related to mitochondria morphology, biogenesis, fission/fusion, mitophagy, apoptosis, and epigenetic regulation. OBJECTIVES We investigated the concept of bidirectional interactions between mitochondria and cellular pathways in response to environmental stress with a focus on epigenetic regulation, and we examined DNA repair and DDR pathways as examples of biological processes that respond to exogenous insults through changes in homeostasis and altered mitochondrial function. METHODS The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences sponsored the Workshop on Mitochondria, Energetics, Epigenetics, Environment, and DNA Damage Response on 25-26 March 2013. Here, we summarize key points and ideas emerging from this meeting. DISCUSSION A more comprehensive understanding of signaling mechanisms (cross-talk) between the mitochondria and nucleus is central to elucidating the integration of mitochondrial functions with other cellular response pathways in modulating the effects of environmental agents. Recent studies have highlighted the importance of mitochondrial functions in epigenetic regulation and DDR with environmental stress. Development and application of novel technologies, enhanced experimental models, and a systems-type research approach will help to discern how environmentally induced mitochondrial dysfunction affects key mechanistic pathways. CONCLUSIONS Understanding mitochondria-cell signaling will provide insight into individual responses to environmental hazards, improving prediction of hazard and susceptibility to environmental stressors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel T Shaughnessy
- Division of Extramural Research and Training, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
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Bodhicharla R, Ryde IT, Prasad GL, Meyer JN. The tobacco-specific nitrosamine 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) induces mitochondrial and nuclear DNA damage in Caenorhabditis elegans. ENVIRONMENTAL AND MOLECULAR MUTAGENESIS 2014; 55:43-50. [PMID: 24014178 DOI: 10.1002/em.21815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2013] [Revised: 08/09/2013] [Accepted: 08/09/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The metabolites of the tobacco-specific nitrosamine 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) form DNA adducts in animal models. While there are many reports of formation of nuclear DNA adducts, one report also detected NNK-induced damage to the mitochondrial genome in rats. Using a different DNA damage detection technology, we tested whether this finding could be repeated in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. We treated N2 strain (wild-type) nematodes with NNK in liquid culture, and applied quantitative PCR to analyze NNK-induced nuclear and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) damage. Our results confirm that NNK causes both nuclear and mtDNA damage. However, we did not detect a difference in the level of nuclear versus mtDNA damage in C. elegans. To test whether the mtDNA damage was associated with mitochondrial dysfunction, we used a transgenic nematode strain that permits in vivo measurement of ATP levels and found lower levels of ATP in NNK-exposed animals when compared with the unexposed controls. To test whether the lower levels of ATP could be attributed to inhibition of respiratory chain components, we investigated oxygen consumption in whole C. elegans and found reduced oxygen consumption in exposed animals when compared with the unexposed controls. Our data suggest a model in which NNK exposure causes damage to both C. elegans nuclear and mitochondrial genomes, and support the hypothesis that the mitochondrial damage is functionally important in this model. These results also represent a first step in developing this genetically tractable organism as a model for assessing NNK toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rakesh Bodhicharla
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
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Meyer JN, Leung MCK, Rooney JP, Sendoel A, Hengartner MO, Kisby GE, Bess AS. Mitochondria as a target of environmental toxicants. Toxicol Sci 2013; 134:1-17. [PMID: 23629515 PMCID: PMC3693132 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kft102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 350] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Enormous strides have recently been made in our understanding of the biology and pathobiology of mitochondria. Many diseases have been identified as caused by mitochondrial dysfunction, and many pharmaceuticals have been identified as previously unrecognized mitochondrial toxicants. A much smaller but growing literature indicates that mitochondria are also targeted by environmental pollutants. We briefly review the importance of mitochondrial function and maintenance for health based on the genetics of mitochondrial diseases and the toxicities resulting from pharmaceutical exposure. We then discuss how the principles of mitochondrial vulnerability illustrated by those fields might apply to environmental contaminants, with particular attention to factors that may modulate vulnerability including genetic differences, epigenetic interactions, tissue characteristics, and developmental stage. Finally, we review the literature related to environmental mitochondrial toxicants, with a particular focus on those toxicants that target mitochondrial DNA. We conclude that the fields of environmental toxicology and environmental health should focus more strongly on mitochondria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel N Meyer
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA.
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