Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agents in chronic liver diseases: Molecular mechanisms and therapy

Polysaccharide of Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz alleviates NAFLD-induced hepatic inflammation in mice by modulating the TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB pathway

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) not only could cause abnormal lipid metabolism in the liver, but also could cause liver inflammation. Previous studies have shown that Polysaccharide of Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz (PAMK) could alleviate animal liver inflammatory damage and alleviate NAFLD in mice caused by high-fat diet(HFD), but regulation of liver inflammation caused by NAFLD has rarely been reported. In this study, an animal model of non-alcoholic fatty liver inflammation in the liver of mice was established to explore the protective effect of PAMK on the liver of mice. The results showed that PAMK could alleviate the abnormal increase of body weight and liver weight of mice caused by HFD, alleviate the abnormal liver structure of mice, reduce the level of oxidative stress and cytokine secretion in the liver of mice, and downregulate the mRNA expression of TLR4, MyD88, NF-κB and protein expression of P-IκB, P-NF-κB-P65, TLR4, MyD88, NF-κB in the liver. These results indicate that PAMK could alleviate hepatocyte fatty degeneration and damage, oxidative stress and inflammatory response of the liver caused by NAFLD in mice.

Flavonoids and Their Role in Preventing the Development and Progression of MAFLD by Modifying the Microbiota

With the increasing prevalence and serious health consequences of metabolic-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD), early diagnosis and intervention are key to effective treatment. Recent studies highlight the important role of dietary factors, including the use of flavonoids, in improving liver health. These compounds possess anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and liver-protective properties. Flavonoids have been shown to affect the gut microbiota, which plays a key role in liver function and disease progression. Therefore, their role in preventing the development and progression of MAFLD through modulation of the microbiome seems to be of interest. This narrative review aims to consolidate the current evidence on the effects of selected flavonoids on MAFLD progression, their potential mechanisms of action, and the implications for the development of personalized dietary interventions for the management of liver disease.

Silybin Meglumine Mitigates CCl4-Induced Liver Fibrosis and Bile Acid Metabolism Alterations

BACKGROUND

Altered patterns of bile acids (BAs) are frequently present in liver fibrosis, and BAs function as signaling molecules to initiate inflammatory responses. Silybin meglumine (SLB-M) is widely used in treating various liver diseases including liver fibrosis. However, research on its effects on bile acid (BA) metabolism is limited. This study investigated the therapeutic effects of SLB-M on liver fibrosis and BA metabolism in a CCl4-induced murine model.

METHODS

A murine liver fibrosis model was induced by CCl4. Fibrosis was evaluated using HE, picrosirius red, and Masson's trichrome staining. Liver function was assessed by serum and hepatic biochemical markers. Bile acid (BA) metabolism was analyzed using LC-MS/MS. Bioinformatics analyses, including PPI network, GO, and KEGG pathway analyses, were employed to explore molecular mechanisms. Gene expression alterations in liver tissue were examined via qRT-PCR.

RESULTS

SLB-M treatment resulted in significant histological improvements in liver tissue, reducing collagen deposition and restoring liver architecture. Biochemically, SLB-M not only normalized serum liver enzyme levels (ALT, AST, TBA, and GGT) but also mitigated disruptions in both systemic and hepatic BA metabolism by increased unconjugated BAs like cholic acid and chenodeoxycholic acid but decreased conjugated BAs including taurocholic acid and taurodeoxycholic acid, compared to that in CCl4-induced murine model. Notably, SLB-M efficiently improved the imbalance of BA homeostasis in liver caused by CCl4 via activating Farnesoid X receptor.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings underscore SLB-M decreased inflammatory response, reconstructed BA homeostasis possibly by regulating key pathways, and gene expressions in BA metabolism.

Impact of silymarin-supplemented cookies on liver enzyme and inflammatory markers in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease patients

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a growing public health concern characterized by fat accumulation and severe disorders like nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), which are influenced by obesity, inflammatory processes, and metabolic pathways. This research investigates the potential of silymarin-supplemented cookies in managing NAFLD by evaluating their impact on liver enzyme activity, inflammatory markers, and lipid profiles. A clinical trial in Lahore, Pakistan, involved 64 NAFLD patients. Participants were divided into placebo and three treatment groups, with the latter receiving silymarin-supplemented cookies for 3 months. The study assessed liver enzyme levels and inflammatory markers, at baseline and after the intervention, utilizing statistical analyses to evaluate differences. The lipid profile and renal function test (RFT) were also measured at baseline and after 3 months in each group for safety assessment. After 3 months, the treatment groups indicated more significant decreases in liver enzymes compared to the placebo group (p ≤ .05). Treatment 3 showed significant reductions in alanine aminotransferase (ALT) (64.39-49.38 U/L) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) (61.53-45.38 U/L). Treatment 3 also showed improvements in alkaline phosphatase (ALP) levels and the AST/ALT ratio. Additionally, the treatment group demonstrated a significant reduction in inflammatory markers. Treatment 3 showed a significant decrease in C-reactive protein (CRP) (6.32-3.39 mg/L) and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) (38.72-23.86 mm/h), indicating that individuals with NAFLD may benefit from the intervention's potential benefits in lowering inflammation. The study revealed that an intervention significantly improved the inflammatory markers, liver enzymes, and lipid profiles of NAFLD participants, suggesting potential benefits for liver health.

Unravelling bisphenol A-induced hepatotoxicity: Insights into oxidative stress, inflammation, and energy dysregulation

Bisphenol A (BPA), a prevalent plastic monomer and endocrine disruptor, negatively impacts metabolic functions. This study examines the chronic effects of eco-relevant BPA concentrations on hepatotoxicity, focusing on redox balance, inflammatory response, cellular energy sensors, and metabolic homeostasis in male Swiss albino mice. Chronic BPA exposure resulted in reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation, altered hepatic antioxidant defense, lipid peroxidation, and NOX4 expression, leading to reduced cell viability. Additionally, BPA exposure significantly upregulated hepatic pro-inflammatory cytokine genes (Tnf-α, Il-1β, Il-6), NOS2, and arginase II, correlating with increased TLR4 expression, NF-κB phosphorylation, and a dose-dependent decrease in IκBα levels. BPA-induced NF-κB nuclear localization and inflammasome activation (NLRP3, cleaved caspase-1, IL-1β) established an inflammatory milieu. Perturbations in hepatic AMPKα phosphorylation, SIRT1, and PGC-1α, along with elevated p38 MAPK phosphorylation and ERα expression, indicated BPA-induced energy dysregulation. Furthermore, increased PLA2G4A, COX1, COX2, and PTGES2 expression in BPA-treated liver correlated with hyperlipidemia, hepatic FASN expression, steatosis, and visceral adiposity, likely due to disrupted energy sensors, oxidative stress, and inflammasome activation. Elevated liver enzymes (ALP, AST, ALT) and apoptotic markers indicated liver damage. Notably, N-acetylcysteine (NAC) priming reversed BPA-induced hepatocellular ROS accumulation, NF-κB-inflammasome activation, and intracellular lipid accumulation, while upregulating cellular energy sensors and attenuating ERα expression, suggesting NAC's protective effects against BPA-induced hepatotoxicity. Pharmacological inhibition of the NF-κB/NLRP3 cascade in BAY11-7082 pretreated, or NLRP3 immunodepleted hepatocytes reversed BPA's negative impact on SIRT1/p-AMPKα/PGC-1α and intracellular lipid accumulation, providing mechanistic insights into BPA-induced metabolic disruption.

A review of Phyllanthus urinaria L. in the treatment of liver disease: viral hepatitis, liver fibrosis/cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma

Due to the pathological production of liver disease in utility particularly complexity, the morbidity and mortality of liver disease including viral hepatitis, liver fibrosis/cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) are rapidly increasing worldwide. Considering its insidious onset, rapid progression and drug resistance, finding an effective therapy is particularly worthwhile. Phyllanthus urinaria L. (P. urinaria), an ethnic medicine, can be applied at the stages of viral hepatitis, liver fibrosis/cirrhosis and HCC, which demonstrates great potential in the treatment of liver disease. Currently, there are numerous reports on the application of P. urinaria in treating liver diseases, but a detailed analysis of its metabolites and a complete summary of its pharmacological mechanism are still scarce. In this review, the phytochemical metabolites and ethnopharmacological applications of P. urinaria are summarized. Briefly, P. urinaria mainly contains flavonoids, lignans, tannins, phenolic acids, terpenoids and other metabolites. The mechanisms of P. urinaria are mainly reflected in reducing surface antigen secretion and interfering with DNA polymerase synthesis for anti-viral hepatitis activity, reducing hepatic stellate cells activity, inflammation and oxidative stress for anti-liver fibrosis/cirrhosis activity, as well as preventing tumor proliferation, invasion and angiogenesis for anti-HCC activity via relevant signaling pathways. Accordingly, this review provides insights into the future application of natural products in the trilogy of liver diseases and will provide a scientific basis for further research and rational utilization of P. urinaria.

Association between the composite dietary antioxidant index and metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease in adults: a cross-sectional study from NHANES 2017-2020

Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) has emerged as a predominant liver disease worldwide, lacking approved drugs for clinical intervention at present. The composite dietary antioxidant index (CDAI) is used to assess the anti-inflammatory properties of diets, with higher CDAI indicating greater exposure to antioxidants. Therefore, our study aimed to explore the relationship between CDAI and MASLD in order to identify potential therapeutic approaches. We collected data from 12,286 participants in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) database from 2017 to 2020 for analysis. The correlation between CDAI and MASLD status, controlled attenuation parameter (CAP), and liver stiffness measurement (LSM) was evaluated by adjusting for confounding variables using weighted binary logistic regression model, linear regression model, and restricted cubic spline (RCS) regression. The median CDAI in this study was - 0.3055 (interquartile range [IQR], - 2.299 to 2.290). The CDAI was higher in the population characterized by being young, female, higher income, absence of diabetes, and non-MASLD. After multivariable adjustment, the results of the weighted linear regression model suggested that higher CDAI may be associated with a decrease in CAP values; the results of the RCS regression model indicated significant non-linear relationships between MASLD status, CAP, LSM, and CDAI. The CDAI corresponding to the inflection points of the relationship curves between MASLD status, CAP, LSM, and CDAI were 0.349, 0.699, and 0.174, respectively. After further stratification by gender, we found that the relationship between MASLD status, CAP, and CDAI was significantly linear for females, whereas for males, it was non-linear, and the CDAI values corresponding to the inflection points in the curves for males were 1.325 and 0.985, respectively. We found that higher CDAI may be associated with decreased CAP values, particularly significant in females, suggesting that the intake of complex dietary antioxidants may ameliorate hepatic steatosis and reduce the occurrence of MASLD. Therefore, promoting dietary patterns rich in antioxidants may be an appropriate strategy to reduce the incidence of MASLD.

Crosstalk between Epigenetics and Metabolic Reprogramming in Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease-Induced Hepatocellular Carcinoma: A New Sight

Epigenetic and metabolic reprogramming alterations are two important features of tumors, and their reversible, spatial, and temporal regulation is a distinctive hallmark of carcinogenesis. Epigenetics, which focuses on gene regulatory mechanisms beyond the DNA sequence, is a new entry point for tumor therapy. Moreover, metabolic reprogramming drives hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) initiation and progression, highlighting the significance of metabolism in this disease. Exploring the inter-regulatory relationship between tumor metabolic reprogramming and epigenetic modification has become one of the hot directions in current tumor metabolism research. As viral etiologies have given way to metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD)-induced HCC, it is urgent that complex molecular pathways linking them and hepatocarcinogenesis be explored. However, how aberrant crosstalk between epigenetic modifications and metabolic reprogramming affects MASLD-induced HCC lacks comprehensive understanding. A better understanding of their linkages is necessary and urgent to improve HCC treatment strategies. For this reason, this review examines the interwoven landscape of molecular carcinogenesis in the context of MASLD-induced HCC, focusing on mechanisms regulating aberrant epigenetic alterations and metabolic reprogramming in the development of MASLD-induced HCC and interactions between them while also updating the current advances in metabolism and epigenetic modification-based therapeutic drugs in HCC.

Enzyme-Treated Zizania latifolia Ethanol Extract Improves Liver-Related Outcomes and Fatigability

Long-term hepatic damage is associated with human morbidity and mortality owing to numerous pathogenic factors. A variety of studies have focused on improving liver health using natural products and herbal medicines. We aimed to investigate the effect of enzyme-treated Zizania latifolia ethanol extract (ETZL), which increases the content of tricin via enzymatic hydrolysis, for 8 weeks on liver-related outcomes, lipid metabolism, antioxidant activity, and fatigue compared to a placebo. Healthy Korean adult males aged 19-60 years were randomized into ETZL treatment and placebo groups, and alcohol consumption was 24.96 and 28.64 units/week, respectively. Alanine transaminase, a blood marker associated with liver cell injury, significantly decreased after 8 weeks compared to the baseline in the ETZL treatment group (p = 0.004). After 8 weeks, the treatment group showed significant changes in the levels of high-density lipoprotein and hepatic steatosis index compared to the baseline (p = 0.028 and p = 0.004, respectively). ETZL treatment tended to reduce antioxidant-activity-related factors, total antioxidant status, and malondialdehyde, but there was no significant difference. In the multidimensional fatigue scale, ETZL treatment showed a significant reduction in general fatigue and total-fatigue-related values after 8 weeks compared to the baseline (p = 0.012 and p = 0.032, respectively). Taken together, the 8-week treatment of enzyme-treated Zizania latifolia ethanol extract demonstrated positive effects on liver-related outcomes, lipid metabolism, and mental fatigue without adverse effects on safety-related parameters.

Cellular ROS and Antioxidants: Physiological and Pathological Role

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are highly reactive oxygen derivatives that include free radicals such as superoxide anion radical (O2•-) and hydroxyl radical (HO•), as well as non-radical molecules hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), peroxynitrite (ONOO-), and hypochlorous acid (HOCl) [...].

Curcumin alleviates zearalenone-induced liver injury in mice by scavenging reactive oxygen species and inhibiting mitochondrial apoptosis pathway

Curcumin (CUR) is a compound extracted from turmeric that has a variety of functions including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory. As an estrogen-like mycotoxin, zearalenone (ZEN) not only attacks the reproductive system, but also has toxic effects on the liver. However, whether CUR can alleviate ZEN-induced liver injury remains unclear. This paper aims to investigate the protective effect of CUR against ZEN-induced liver injury in mice and explore the molecular mechanism involved. BALB/c mice were randomly divided into control (CON) group, CUR group (200 mg/kg b. w. CUR), ZEN group (40 mg/kg b. w. ZEN) and CUR+ZEN group (200 mg/kg b. w. CUR+40 mg/kg b. w. ZEN). 28 d after ZEN exposure and CUR treatment, blood and liver samples were collected for subsequent testing. The results showed that CUR reversed ZEN-induced hepatocyte swelling and necrosis in mice. It significantly reduced the serum alkaline phosphatase (ALP), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels in mice (p < 0.05). In addition, CUR significantly reduced hepatic ROS, malondialdehyde, hydrogen peroxide and apoptosis levels in mice (p < 0.05). Quantitative RT-PCR and Western blot results showed that CUR significantly reduced the expression of Bax and Caspase3, and reversed the increase of Nrf2, HO-1 and NQO1 expression in the liver of mice induced by ZEN (p < 0.05). In conclusion, CUR alleviated ZEN-induced liver injury in mice by scavenging ROS and inhibiting the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway.

Insights into the Management of Chronic Hepatitis in Children-From Oxidative Stress to Antioxidant Therapy

Recent research has generated awareness of the existence of various pathophysiological pathways that contribute to the development of chronic diseases; thus, pro-oxidative factors have been accepted as significant contributors to the emergence of a wide range of diseases, from inflammatory to malignant. Redox homeostasis is especially crucial in liver pathology, as disturbances at this level have been linked to a variety of chronic diseases. Hepatitis is an umbrella term used to describe liver inflammation, which is the foundation of this disease regardless of its cause. Chronic hepatitis produces both oxidative stress generated by hepatocyte inflammation and viral inoculation. The majority of hepatitis in children is caused by a virus, and current studies reveal that 60-80% of cases become chronic, with many young patients still at risk of advancing liver damage. This review intends to emphasize the relevance of understanding these pathological redox pathways, as well as the need to update therapeutic strategies in chronic liver pathology, considering the beneficial effects of antioxidants.

Protective effects of hepatic diseases by bioactive phytochemicals in Fusarium oxysporum - A review

Lately, liver diseases were categorized as one of the most prevalent health problems globally as it causes a severe threat to mankind all over the world due to the wide range of occurrence. There are multiple factors causing hepatic disorders, such as alcohol, virus, poisons, adverse effects of drugs, poor diet, inherited conditions and obesity. Liver diseases have various types including alcoholic liver disease, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, autoimmune hepatitis, liver cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, liver fibrosis and hepatic inflammation. Therefore, it is imperative to find effective and efficacious agents in managing liver diseases. Fusarium oxysporum, an endophytic fungus and containing many bioactive compounds, could be served as a forked medication for enormous number and types of maladies. It was characterized by producing biochemical compounds which had rare pharmacological properties as it may be found in a limit number of other medicinal plants. The majority of the past researches related to Fusarium oxysporum recited the fungal negative field either on the pathogenic effects of the fungus on economical crops or on the fungal chemical components to know how to resist it. The present review will highlight on the bright side of Fusarium oxysporum and introduce the functional activities of its chemical compounds for treating its target diseases. The key point of illustrated studies in this article is displaying wide range of detected bioactive compounds isolated from Fusarium oxysporum and in other illustrated studies it was elucidated the therapeutical and pharmacological potency of these biologically active compounds (isolated from medicinal plants sources) against different types of liver diseases including non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, alcoholic liver disease, cirrhosis and others. It was demonstrated that F. oxysporum contains unique types of isoflavones, flavonoids, phenols and another active chemical compounds, and these compounds showed recently a fabulous clinical contribution in the therapy of liver injury diseases, which opens new and unprecedented way for evaluating the maintaining efficacy of Fusarium oxysporum bioactive compounds in dealing with hepatic complications and its remedy impacting on liver diseases and injured hepatocytes through recommending implement a practical study.

Network pharmacology combined with an animal model to reveal the material basis and mechanism of Amomum villosum in alleviating constipation in mice

Constipation is a prevalent gastrointestinal disorder, with its prevalence showing an annual upward trend. There are many factors involved in the occurrence of constipation, such as abnormal smooth muscle contraction and disorders of gastrointestinal hormone secretion. Amomum villosum (A. villosum) has been proven to be effective in improving digestive system diseases, but there is no report on improving constipation. Therefore, we used network pharmacology prediction combined with animal experiments to explore the key active components of A. villosum and their pharmacological mechanisms. The results of network pharmacological prediction showed that β-sitosterol was the key laxative compound of A. villosum, which may play a laxative role by activating the adrenoceptor alpha 1 A-myosin light chain (ADRA1A-MLC) pathway. Further animal experiments showed that β-sitosterol could significantly shorten the time to first black stool; increase faecal weight, faecal number, and faecal water content; and promote gastrointestinal motility. β-sitosterol may promote intestinal motility by upregulating the expression of ADRA1A and myosin light chain 9 (Myl9) mRNA and protein in the colon, thereby activating the ADRA1A-MLC signalling pathway. In addition, it is possible to improve constipation symptoms by regulating serum neurotransmitters and gastrointestinal motility-related factors, such as the serum content of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) and acetylcholinesterase (AchE) and the mRNA expression of 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor 4 (5-HT4), stem cell factor (SCF), stem cell factor receptor (c-Kit) and smooth muscle myosin light chain kinase (smMLCK) in the colon. These results lay a foundation for the application of A. villosum and β-sitosterol in constipation.

Human Neutrophil Alpha-Defensins Promote NETosis and Liver Injury in Alcohol-Related Liver Cirrhosis: Potential Therapeutic Agents

Background: Neutrophils are thought to play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of many inflammatory diseases, such as hepatitis, liver cirrhosis, etc. Activated human neutrophils release human neutrophil peptides (HNP1-3) or alpha-defensins that are antimicrobial peptides in azurophil granules. Furthermore, HNP1-3 build a scaffold of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) and promote the process of programmed cell death called NETosis. Our study aimed to investigate the role of alpha-defensins in the pathogenesis of alcohol-related liver cirrhosis (ALC). Methods: The concentrations of alpha-defensins in the plasma of 62 patients with ALC and 24 healthy subjects were measured by ELISA. The patients with ALC were prospectively recruited based on the severity of liver dysfunction according to the Child-Pugh and Model of End-Stage Liver Disease-Natrium (MELD-Na) scores, modified Maddrey's Discriminant Function (mDF), and the presence of ALC complications. Results: The concentrations of alpha-defensins in plasma were significantly higher in the ALC patients than in the controls. The plasma levels of HNP1-3 correlated with the MELD and mDF scores. ALC subgroups with MELD > 20 and mDF > 32 displayed significantly higher HNP1-3 concentrations. The plasma levels of HNP1-3 revealed a good predictive AUC for hepatic encephalopathy and ascites development (0.81 and 0.74, respectively) and for patient survival (0.87) in those over 40 years of age. Conclusion: These findings suggest that alpha-defensins play an important role in the assessment of ALC.

Gut microbiota and metabolite interface-mediated hepatic inflammation

Immunologic and metabolic signals regulated by gut microbiota and relevant metabolites mediate bidirectional interaction between the gut and liver. Gut microbiota dysbiosis, due to diet, lifestyle, bile acids, and genetic and environmental factors, can advance the progression of chronic liver disease. Commensal gut bacteria have both pro- and anti-inflammatory effects depending on their species and relative abundance in the intestine. Components and metabolites derived from gut microbiota-diet interaction can regulate hepatic innate and adaptive immune cells, as well as liver parenchymal cells, significantly impacting liver inflammation. In this mini review, recent findings of specific bacterial species and metabolites with functions in regulating liver inflammation are first reviewed. In addition, socioeconomic and environmental factors, hormones, and genetics that shape the profile of gut microbiota and microbial metabolites and components with the function of priming or dampening liver inflammation are discussed. Finally, current clinical trials evaluating the factors that manipulate gut microbiota to treat liver inflammation and chronic liver disease are reviewed. Overall, the discussion of microbial and metabolic mediators contributing to liver inflammation will help direct our future studies on liver disease.

Redox Biology and Liver Fibrosis

Hepatic fibrosis is a complex process that develops in chronic liver diseases. Even though the initiation and progression of fibrosis rely on the underlying etiology, mutual mechanisms can be recognized and targeted for therapeutic purposes. Irrespective of the primary cause of liver disease, persistent damage to parenchymal cells triggers the overproduction of reactive species, with the consequent disruption of redox balance. Reactive species are important mediators for the homeostasis of both hepatocytes and non-parenchymal liver cells. Indeed, other than acting as cytotoxic agents, reactive species are able to modulate specific signaling pathways that may be relevant to hepatic fibrogenesis. After a brief introduction to redox biology and the mechanisms of fibrogenesis, this review aims to summarize the current evidence of the involvement of redox-dependent pathways in liver fibrosis and focuses on possible therapeutic targets.

Available and novel plant-based carbon dots derived from Vaccaria Semen carbonisata alleviates liver fibrosis

Background: Liver fibrosis represents an intermediate stage in the progression of liver disease, and as of now, there exists no established clinical therapy for effective antifibrotic treatment. Purpose: Our aim is to explore the impact of Carbon dots derived from Vaccaria Semen Carbonisata (VSC-CDs) on carbon tetrachloride-induced liver fibrosis in mice. Methods: VSC-CDs were synthesized employing a modified pyrolysis process. Comprehensive characterization was performed utilizing various techniques, including transmission electron microscopy (TEM), multiple spectroscopies, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). A hepatic fibrosis model induced by carbon tetrachloride was utilized to evaluate the anti-hepatic fibrosis effects of VSC-CDs. Results: VSC-CDs, exhibiting a quantum yield (QY) of approximately 2.08%, were nearly spherical with diameters ranging from 1.0 to 5.5 nm. The VSC-CDs prepared in this study featured a negative charge and abundant chemical functional groups. Furthermore, these particles demonstrated outstanding dispersibility in the aqueous phase and high biocompatibility. Moreover, VSC-CDs not only enhanced liver function and alleviated liver damage in pathomorphology but also mitigated the extent of liver fibrosis. Additionally, this study marks the inaugural demonstration of the pronounced activity of VSC-CDs in inhibiting inflammatory reactions, reducing oxidative damage, and modulating the TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway. Conclusion: VSC-CDs exerted significant potential for application in nanodrugs aimed at treating liver fibrosis.

Preventive and Therapeutic Effects of Silybum marianum Seed Extract Rich in Silydianin and Silychristin in a Rat Model of Metabolic Syndrome

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) has become an increasing global health problem, which leads to cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes. Silybum marianum extracts have been reported to possess several biological activities. In this study, an ethyl acetate extract prepared from S. marianum seeds of the Iraqi Kurdistan region was analyzed to identify its chemical constituents. Subsequently, its potential for the prevention and treatment of MetS was studied in a rat model induced by a high-fat/high-fructose diet (HFD/F). Silydianin and silychristin were the most abundant flavonolignan constituents (39.4%) identified in the S. marianum extract (SMEE). HFD/F-induced rats treated with SMEE exhibited preventive effects including reduced serum triglyceride levels (TG), decreased glucose levels in an oral glucose tolerance test (p < 0.001), attenuated weight gain, and reduced blood pressure compared to the untreated control group. Therapeutic application of SMEE after inducing MetS led to lowering of TG (p < 0.001) and glucose levels, in addition to reducing weight gain and normalizing blood pressure (p < 0.005). Thus, S. marianum extract rich in silydianin and silychristin may be useful for preventing and attenuating MetS, and further research and clinical trials are warranted.

Anti-Viral Activity of Bioactive Molecules of Silymarin against COVID-19 via In Silico Studies

The severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection drove the global coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, causing a huge loss of human life and a negative impact on economic development. It is an urgent necessity to explore potential drugs against viruses, such as SARS-CoV-2. Silymarin, a mixture of herb-derived polyphenolic flavonoids extracted from the milk thistle, possesses potent antioxidative, anti-apoptotic, and anti-inflammatory properties. Accumulating research studies have demonstrated the killing activity of silymarin against viruses, such as dengue virus, chikungunya virus, and hepatitis C virus. However, the anti-COVID-19 mechanisms of silymarin remain unclear. In this study, multiple disciplinary approaches and methodologies were applied to evaluate the potential mechanisms of silymarin as an anti-viral agent against SARS-CoV-2 infection. In silico approaches such as molecular docking, network pharmacology, and bioinformatic methods were incorporated to assess the ligand-protein binding properties and analyze the protein-protein interaction network. The DAVID database was used to analyze gene functions, such as the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway and Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment. TCMSP and GeneCards were used to identify drug target genes and COVID-19-related genes. Our results revealed that silymarin compounds, such as silybin A/B and silymonin, displayed triplicate functions against SARS-CoV-2 infection, including directly binding with human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) to inhibit SARS-CoV-2 entry into the host cells, directly binding with viral proteins RdRp and helicase to inhibit viral replication and proliferation, and regulating host immune response to indirectly inhibit viral infection. Specifically, the targets of silymarin molecules in immune regulation were screened out, such as proinflammatory cytokines TNF and IL-6 and cell growth factors VEGFA and EGF. In addition, the molecular mechanism of drug-target protein interaction was investigated, including the binding pockets of drug molecules in human ACE2 and viral proteins, the formation of hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions, and other drug-protein ligand interactions. Finally, the drug-likeness results of candidate molecules passed the criteria for drug screening. Overall, this study demonstrates the molecular mechanism of silymarin molecules against SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Alanyl-Glutamine Dipeptide Attenuates Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease Induced by a High-Fat Diet in Mice by Improving Gut Microbiota Dysbiosis

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) manifests as a persistent liver ailment marked by the excessive buildup of lipids within the hepatic organ accompanied by inflammatory responses and oxidative stress. Alanyl-glutamine (AG), a dipeptide comprising alanine and glutamine, is commonly employed as a nutritional supplement in clinical settings. This research aims to evaluate the impact of AG on NAFLD triggered by a high-fat diet (HFD), while concurrently delving into the potential mechanisms underlying its effects. The results presented herein demonstrate a notable reduction in the elevated body weight, liver mass, and liver index induced by a HFD upon AG administration. These alterations coincide with the amelioration of liver injury and the attenuation of hepatic histological advancement. Furthermore, AG treatment manifests a discernible diminution in oil-red-O-stained regions and triglyceride (TG) levels within the liver. Noteworthy alterations encompass lowered plasma total cholesterol (TC) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDLC) concentrations, coupled with elevated high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDLC) concentrations. The mitigation of hepatic lipid accumulation resultant from AG administration is aligned with the downregulation of ACC1, SCD1, PPAR-γ, and CD36 expression, in conjunction with the upregulation of FXR and SHP expression. Concomitantly, AG administration leads to a reduction in the accumulation of F4/80-positive macrophages within the liver, likely attributable to the downregulated expression of MCP-1. Furthermore, AG treatment yields a decline in hepatic MDA levels and a concurrent increase in the activities of SOD and GPX. A pivotal observation underscores the effect of AG in rectifying the imbalance of gut microbiota in HFD-fed mice. Consequently, this study sheds light on the protective attributes of AG against HFD-induced NAFLD through the modulation of gut microbiota composition.

Emerging role of nanotechnology in treatment of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD)

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a prevailing health challenge that requires urgent innovative interventions. This review explores the role of nanotechnology as a promising potential in the treatment of NAFLD. It delineates the limitations of the current management strategies for NAFLD and highlights the new nanotechnology-based treatments including nanoemulsions, liposomes, micelles, polymeric nanoparticles, nanogels, inorganic nanoparticles, and zinc oxide nanoparticles. Despite the optimism surrounding the nanotechnological approach, the review underscores the need to address the limitations such as technical challenges, potential toxicity, and ethical considerations that impede the practical application of nanotechnology in NAFLD management. It advocates for collaborative efforts from researchers, clinicians, ethicists, and policymakers to achieve safe, effective, and equitable nanotechnology-based treatments for NAFLD. See also Figure 1(Fig. 1).

The applications of functional materials-based nano-formulations in the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of chronic inflammation-related diseases

Chronic inflammation, in general, refers to systemic immune abnormalities most often caused by the environment or lifestyle, which is the basis for various skin diseases, autoimmune diseases, cardiovascular diseases, liver diseases, digestive diseases, cancer, and so on. Therapeutic strategies have focused on immunosuppression and anti-inflammation, but conventional approaches have been poor in enhancing the substantive therapeutic effect of drugs. Nanomaterials continue to attract attention for their high flexibility, durability and simplicity of preparation, as well as high profitability. Nanotechnology is used in various areas of clinical medicine, such as medical diagnosis, monitoring and treatment. However, some related problems cannot be ignored, including various cytotoxic and worsening inflammation caused by the nanomaterials themselves. This paper provides an overview of functional nanomaterial formulations for the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of chronic inflammation-related diseases, with the intention of providing some reference for the enhancement and optimization of existing therapeutic approaches.

Treatment of liver fibrosis: Past, current, and future

Liver fibrosis accompanies the progression of chronic liver diseases independent of etiologies, such as hepatitis viral infection, alcohol consumption, and metabolic-associated fatty liver disease. It is commonly associated with liver injury, inflammation, and cell death. Liver fibrosis is characterized by abnormal accumulation of extracellular matrix components that are expressed by liver myofibroblasts such as collagens and alpha-smooth actin proteins. Activated hepatic stellate cells contribute to the major population of myofibroblasts. Many treatments for liver fibrosis have been investigated in clinical trials, including dietary supplementation (e.g., vitamin C), biological treatment (e.g., simtuzumab), drug (e.g., pegbelfermin and natural herbs), genetic regulation (e.g., non-coding RNAs), and transplantation of stem cells (e.g., hematopoietic stem cells). However, none of these treatments has been approved by Food and Drug Administration. The treatment efficacy can be evaluated by histological staining methods, imaging methods, and serum biomarkers, as well as fibrosis scoring systems, such as fibrosis-4 index, aspartate aminotransferase to platelet ratio, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease fibrosis score. Furthermore, the reverse of liver fibrosis is slowly and frequently impossible for advanced fibrosis or cirrhosis. To avoid the life-threatening stage of liver fibrosis, anti-fibrotic treatments, especially for combined behavior prevention, biological treatment, drugs or herb medicines, and dietary regulation are needed. This review summarizes the past studies and current and future treatments for liver fibrosis.

Novel PD-L1-Targeted Phenyl-Pyrazolone Derivatives with Antioxidant Properties

Orally-active anticancer small molecules targeting the PD-1/PD-L1 immune checkpoint are actively searched. Phenyl-pyrazolone derivatives with a high affinity for PD-L1 have been designed and characterized. In addition, the phenyl-pyrazolone unit acts as a scavenger of oxygen free radicals, providing antioxidant effects. The mechanism is known for the drug edaravone (1) which is also an aldehyde-reactive molecule. The present study reports the synthesis and functional characterization of new molecules (2-5) with an improved anti-PD-L1 activity. The leading fluorinated molecule 5 emerges as a potent checkpoint inhibitor, avidly binding to PD-L1, inducing its dimerization, blocking PD-1/PD-L1 signaling mediated by phosphatase SHP-2 and reactivating the proliferation of CTLL-2 cells in the presence of PD-L1. In parallel, the compound maintains a significant antioxidant activity, characterized using electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR)-based free radical scavenging assays with the probes DPPH and DMPO. The aldehyde reactivity of the molecules was investigated using 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE), which is a major lipid peroxidation product. The formation of drug-HNE adducts, monitored by high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS), was clearly identified and compared for each compound. The study leads to the selection of compound 5 and the dichlorophenyl-pyrazolone unit as a scaffold for the design of small molecule PD-L1 inhibitors endowed with antioxidant properties.