Spontaneous bleeding or thrombosis in cirrhosis: What should be feared the most?

The Bleeding Edge: Managing Coagulation and Bleeding Risk in Patients with Cirrhosis Undergoing Interventional Procedures

This review addresses the peri-procedural bleeding risks in patients with cirrhosis, emphasizing the need for careful coagulation assessment and targeted correction strategies. Liver disease presents a unique hemostatic challenge, where traditional coagulation tests may not accurately predict bleeding risk, complicating the management of procedures like paracentesis, endoscopic therapy, and various interventional procedures. As such, this paper aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of current data, guidelines, and practices for managing coagulation in cirrhotic patients, with a focus on minimizing bleeding risk while avoiding unnecessary correction with blood products. The objectives of this review are threefold: first, to outline the existing evidence on bleeding risks associated with common invasive procedures in cirrhotic patients; second, to evaluate the efficacy and limitations of standard and advanced coagulation tests in predicting procedural bleeding; and third, to examine the role of blood product transfusions and other hemostatic interventions, considering potential risks and benefits in this delicate population. In doing so, this review highlights patient-specific and procedure-specific factors that influence bleeding risk and informs best practices to optimize patient outcomes. This review progresses through key procedures often performed in cirrhotic patients. The discussion begins with paracentesis, a low-risk procedure, followed by endoscopic therapy for varices, and concludes with high-risk interventions requiring advanced hemostatic considerations. Each chapter addresses procedural techniques, bleeding risk assessment, and evidence-based correction approaches. This comprehensive structure aims to guide clinicians in making informed, evidence-backed decisions in managing coagulation in cirrhosis, ultimately reducing procedural complications and improving care quality for this high-risk population.

Recent Approaches in Portal Hypertension Involving Risk Stratification and Medical Management

Portal hypertension leads to the formation of portosystemic collaterals that divert portal blood to the systemic circulation and bypass the liver, resulting in multiple severe complications. Portal hypertension has classically been diagnosed using invasive methods to calculate the hepatic venous pressure gradient. There has been a recent evolution in portal hypertension pathology emphasizing dynamic changes and integrated pathophysiology, as well as concurrent changes in medical management. There is now a focus on using less-invasive approaches to diagnose portal hypertension and novel treatments that target the various components of evolving portal hypertension pathophysiology. This article details the latest techniques in diagnosing and treating portal hypertension that are becoming cornerstones of portal hypertension management.

Causes for the absence of thrombocytopenia in patients with liver cirrhosis and portal vein thrombosis: A case-control study

Background: Complications of liver cirrhosis (LC), such as thrombocytopenia and portal vein thrombosis (PVT), have similar pathophysiology. However, the association between PVT and platelet count in LC patients is contradictory. Aim: To assess factors affecting the platelet count in patients with LC and PVT. Materials and methods: This was a retrospective case-control study. The cases were 114 patients with LC of various etiologies and newly diagnosed PVT unrelated to invasive hepatocellular carcinoma. From the database of LC patients without PVT, 228 controls were randomly selected with stratification by gender, age and etiology of cirrhosis. The patients from both groups were divided into subgroups with thrombocytopenia ( 150 × 109/L) and without thrombocytopenia (≥ 150 × 109/L). We analyzed the LC etiology, portal hypertension severity (ascites, hepatic encephalopathy, gastroesophageal varices and associated bleedings, the spleen length, and portal vein diameter), laboratory parameters (white blood cell counts, neutrophils, lymphocytes, hemoglobin levels, total protein, albumin, total bilirubin, fibrinogen, neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio, and prothrombin); also, the rates of newly diagnosed malignant tumors was assessed. The statistical analysis included calculation of odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI), logistic regression models with assessment of the model accuracy, and the area under the ROC curve (AUC). Results: There were no differences in the severity of thrombocytopenia between the case and control groups: thrombocytopenia was severe in 15.8% (18 patients) vs 13.6% (31 patients, p = 0.586); moderate, in 41.2% (47 patients) vs 46.1% (105 patients, p = 0.398) and mild, in 31.6% (36 patients) vs 24.5% (56 patients, p = 0.168). The proportion of the patients without thrombocytopenia was 11.4% (13 patients) in the case group and 15.8% (36 patients) in the control group, with the between-group difference being non-significant (p = 0.276). In the subgroups of patients without thrombocytopenia (both in the cases and in the controls), the proportion alcoholic etiology of LC, white blood cells counts, neutrophils, lymphocytes, and fibrinogen concentrations were significantly higher (p 0.05) than in those with thrombocytopenia. The model based on the outcome "absence of thrombocytopenia" included white blood cells counts, hemoglobin and albumin levels, the presence of newly diagnosed malignant tumors in the case group (model accuracy 90.4%, AUC 0.873), and neutrophil counts and spleen length in the control group (model accuracy 86.4%, AUC 0.855). In the patients with PVT and platelet counts of ≥ 150 × 109/L, the OR for all newly diagnosed malignant tumors was 26.3 (95% CI 7.37–93.97, р 0.0001), for newly diagnosed hepatocellular carcinoma without portal vein invasion 17.42 (95% CI 4.84–62.65, р 0.0001). Conclusion: In LC patients, the prevalence and severity of thrombocytopenia are not different depending on the PVT presence or absence. The absence of thrombocytopenia in PVT patients is associated with a higher risk of malignant tumors identification, primarily that of hepatocellular carcinoma.

Viscoelastometry to Manage Bleeding in Liver Disease

A state of "re-balanced haemostasis" describes complex coagulation changes that arise in patients with liver disease. Changes include alterations in procoagulant and anticoagulant proteins, platelets and von Willebrand factor, as well as the fibrinolytic system. Various circumstances including infection, trauma, or surgery may disrupt this balance and predispose an individual to bleeding or thrombosis. The prothrombin time, international normalised ratio, and activated partial thromboplastin time are conventional coagulation screening tests that are routinely employed by clinicians to investigate unexplained bleeding, monitor anticoagulation, and inform preoperative assessments of bleeding risk. These standard coagulation tests assess quantitative defects in procoagulant clotting factors and are insensitive to levels of natural anticoagulants, which together with procoagulant factors, are often perturbed in liver disease. Therefore, the prolongation of clotting times measured by these tests often does not reflect the multifaceted alterations of haemostasis in these patients. Viscoelastic testing (VET) provides a more encompassing assessment of clotting function by recording real-time viscoelastic changes in whole blood and includes parameters that provide information on coagulation factor function, platelet contribution to clot formation, as well as fibrinolysis. To date, VET has been employed to predict and inform transfusion support in obstetric, trauma, and cardiac surgical fields, and its use in patients undergoing liver transplantation is well established. The ability of VET to accurately predict bleeding risk and precisely guide transfusion algorithms for patients with liver disease undergoing other invasive procedures or experiencing bleeding complications has been the topic of research over the last decade. This review is a critical summary of this data and provides a detailed snapshot of the position of VET as a clinical tool in patients with liver disease.

Clinical Application of Thromboelastography in Patients With Cirrhosis: A Single Center Experience

INTRODUCTION

Thromboelastography (TEG) is a functional test of coagulation used to guide transfusions. Despite literature supporting its utility, its use remains limited to select populations. In patients with cirrhosis, conventional coagulation tests are notoriously inaccurate, and TEG may be a better measure of coagulopathy. We aimed to assess the utilization of TEG in patients with cirrhosis to steward blood transfusions in this high-risk group.

METHODS

A single-center retrospective chart review of all patients ≥18 y old with a diagnosis of liver cirrhosis who had TEG results documented in the electronic medical record from January 1 to November 1, 2021.

RESULTS

There were 277 TEG results on 89 patients with cirrhosis. Overall, 91% of the TEGs performed were associated with a clinical indication for transfusion. However, of the patients who were transfused, abnormal TEG values, including elevated R time and reduced maximum amplitude, did not correspond to transfusion of indicated blood products (fresh frozen plasma and platelets). A reduction in alpha angle showed a statistically significant association with transfusion of cryoprecipitate (P < 0.05). When assessing conventional coagulation tests, abnormal values were not significantly associated with transfusion (P = 0.07).

CONCLUSIONS

Despite TEG suggesting that transfusions could be avoided in many cirrhotic patients, patients are still being transfused platelets and fresh frozen plasma in the absence of evidence of coagulopathy on TEG. Our finding suggests the need for education about appropriate utilization of TEG. More research is needed to understand the role of these tests to guide transfusion practices in patients with cirrhosis.

Minimizing drug-drug interactions between dabigatran and levetiracetam through clinical management: a case report

Background

Direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) are useful for stroke prevention in atrial fibrillation (AF) patients. However, the concomitant administration of Levetiracetam limited their use in clinical practice, although some authors raise doubts about clinical relevance of the interaction.

Case summary

We report a case of a 54-year-old male with AF, cirrhosis, and seizures, in which the assessment of Dabigatran plasma concentration was needed due to the concomitant use of Levetiracetam. In this case, no relevant reduction of trough Dabigatran plasma concentration was found. An increased peak serum level of dabigatran may be obtained delaying levetiracetam administration. The patient was then followed in our clinic and during 32 months of follow-up no ischaemic or haemorrhagic events occurred.

Discussion

The evaluation of DOACs concentration could be helpful to start a tailored therapy in frailty patients.

Nonmalignant portal vein thrombi in patients with cirrhosis consist of intimal fibrosis with or without a fibrin-rich thrombus

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Portal vein thrombosis (PVT) is a common complication of cirrhosis. The exact pathophysiology remains largely unknown, and treatment with anticoagulants does not lead to recanalization of the portal vein in all patients. A better insight into the structure and composition of portal vein thrombi may assist in developing strategies for the prevention and treatment of PVT.

APPROACH AND RESULTS

Sixteen prospectively and 63 retrospectively collected nonmalignant portal vein thrombi from patients with cirrhosis who underwent liver transplantation were included. Histology, immunohistochemistry, and scanning electron microscopy were used to assess structure and composition of the thrombi. Most recent CT scans were reanalyzed for thrombus characteristics. Clinical characteristics were related to histological and radiological findings. All samples showed a thickened, fibrotic tunica intima. Fibrin-rich thrombi were present on top of the fibrotic intima in 9/16 prospective cases and in 21/63 retrospective cases. A minority of the fibrotic areas stained focally positive for fibrin/fibrinogen (16% of cases), von Willebrand factor (VWF; 10%), and CD61 (platelets, 21%), while most of the fibrin-rich areas stained positive for those markers (fibrin/fibrinogen, 100%; VWF, 77%; CD61, 100%). No associations were found between clinical characteristics including estimated thrombus age and use of anticoagulants and presence of fibrin-rich thrombi.

CONCLUSION

We demonstrate that PVT in patients with cirrhosis consists of intimal fibrosis with an additional fibrin-rich thrombus in only one-third of cases. We hypothesize that our observations may explain why not all portal vein thrombi in patients with cirrhosis recanalize by anticoagulant therapy.

Cryoprecipitate as an alternative to platelet transfusion in thrombocytopenia

Platelet transfusions are not always available for bleeding in severe thrombocytopenia, as storage outside of major centers is limited by their short shelf-life. Data are lacking to support alternative available blood products; however, additional fibrinogen has been shown to enhance clot formation in vitro. To test the hypothesis that cryoprecipitate supplementation could improve clot formation in severe thrombocytopenia, eight hematological malignancy patients with platelet counts under 10 × 109/L each had 10 units of apheresis cryoprecipitate transfused prior to planned prophylactic platelet transfusions. The primary endpoint of thromboelastometry amplitude at 20 min increased by a mean of 5.1 mm (p < 0.01) following cryoprecipitate transfusion despite persisting thrombocytopenia. Thromboelastometry clotting times reduced by a mean of 7.8 s (p < 0.05) and alpha angle increased by a mean of 10.6⁰ (p < 0.01). These results are consistent with cryoprecipitate enhancing the strength of the fibrin/platelet meshwork within the forming thrombus. While platelet transfusion remains the standard of care, where platelet supplies are limited, these data provide a rationale for the use of cryoprecipitate to obtain hemostasis in bleeding thrombocytopenic patients.

Clinical Effect of Systemic Steroids in Patients with Cirrhosis and Septic Shock

PURPOSE

Evidence regarding the utility of systemic steroids in treating patients with cirrhosis and septic shock remains equivocal. This study aimed to evaluate and elucidate the association of steroid use with outcomes and adverse effects in a cohort of patients with cirrhosis and septic shock.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Retrospective cohort study of patients with cirrhosis and septic shock admitted to a tertiary hospital intensive care unit (ICU) from January 2007 to May 2017, using a validated ICU Datamart. Patients who received vasopressors within 6 h of ICU admission were included in the multivariate analysis. The effect of steroids on outcomes was evaluated using multivariable regression, adjusting for confounding variables.

RESULTS

Out of 179 admissions of patients with cirrhosis and septic shock, 56 received steroids during the ICU admission. Patients who received steroids received a higher total dose of vasopressors (91.2 mg vs. 39.1 mg, P = 0.04) and had a lower initial lactate level (1.8 mmol/L vs. 2.6 mmol/L, P = 0.007). The multivariate analysis included 117 patients and showed no significant differences in mortality, length of ICU admission, or length of hospital stay. Bleeding events, delirium, and renal-replacement therapy requirements were also not associated with the use of steroids.

CONCLUSION

The use of systemic steroids was more prevalent in cirrhotic patients with higher vasopressor requirements. It was not associated with decreased mortality or increased ICU- and hospital-free days, or to adverse effects.

The hemostatic and thrombotic complications of liver disease

Hepatic cirrhosis leads to numerous hematologic derangements resulting in a complex and tenuously rebalanced hemostatic milieu. The utility of common hematologic tests including the INR and aPTT in assessing hemostatic and thrombotic risk in patients with cirrhosis is limited, and consensus on transfusion thresholds and proper management of thrombotic complications continues to evolve. This review summarizes the pathophysiology of key derangements of hemostasis including those of platelets, von Willebrand factor, pro- and anticoagulation factors, and fibrin. Additionally, the pathogenesis, consequences, optimal management, and prevention of major thrombotic and bleeding complications in cirrhosis arte discussed.

Spontaneous gastrocnemius muscle haematoma formation in a patient with alcoholic liver disease

Advanced liver disease is associated with several haemostatic alterations which can lead to either thrombosis or bleeding complications. Spontaneous muscle haematomas although a rare complication of liver cirrhosis is increasingly being described in the literature and hyperfibrinolysis is an emerging plausible pathophysiological mechanism. We describe a patient who presented with a life threatening spontaneous haematoma in his gastrocnemius muscle that required treatment with antifibrinolytic therapy to control further bleeding.

Incidence of Bleeding and Thrombosis in Patients with Liver Disease

Historically, liver disease has been associated with a bleeding tendency. Global hemostatic assays have demonstrated that hemostasis is overall rebalanced, in both acute liver failure and chronic liver disease. It is now recognized that many bleeding events in chronic liver disease are mediated by portal hypertension rather than an underlying hemostatic defect. This is acknowledged in recent guidelines, which recommend against coagulation testing prior to low risk procedures in this patient group, with avoidance also of attempts at correction of prolonged coagulation times. Over time, the incidence of bleeding events has decreased in both chronic liver disease and acute liver failure, with improved supportive care, targeted treatments for underlying cause of liver disease, and the advent of liver transplantation. Concurrently, there has been increased recognition of the risk of thrombosis in chronic liver disease, with a predilection for the splanchnic vasculature. This review describes the incidence of bleeding and thrombosis in chronic liver disease and acute liver failure, including the periprocedural and liver transplantation setting.

Clinical Implications of Thrombocytopenia for the Cirrhotic Patient

Thrombocytopenia is a frequent complication in patients with cirrhosis. As many as 84% of patients with cirrhosis have thrombocytopenia, and it is an independent variable indicative of advanced disease and poor prognosis. Although there is great concern that it may aggravate bleeding during surgical procedures, there is limited evidence to inform decisions regarding the treatment of cirrhotic patients with thrombocytopenia undergoing invasive procedures. Finally, there is evidence that platelets play a significant role in liver regeneration. In this report, the clinical implications of thrombocytopenia in cirrhotic patients are reviewed. The utility of platelet counts in the prognosis of cirrhosis and relationship to complications of advanced liver disease, including portal hypertension, esophageal varices, and hepatocellular carcinoma. The impact of low platelet counts on bleeding complications during invasive procedures is outlined. Finally, the role of platelets and potential adverse impact in liver regeneration is reviewed.

Platelet Count Does Not Predict Bleeding in Cirrhotic Patients: Results from the PRO-LIVER Study

OBJECTIVES

Thrombocytopenia is a hallmark for patients with cirrhosis and it is perceived as a risk factor for bleeding events. However, the relationship between platelet count and bleeding is still unclear.

METHODS

We investigated the relationship between platelet count and major or clinical relevant nonmajor bleedings during a follow-up of ∼4 years.

RESULTS

A total of 280 cirrhotic patients with different degrees of liver disease (67% males; age 64±37 years; 47% Child-Pugh B and C) were followed up for a median of 1,129 (interquartile range: 800-1,498) days yielding 953.12 patient-year of observation. The annual rate of any significant bleeding was 5.45%/year (3.57%/year and 1.89%/year for major and minor bleeding, respectively). Fifty-two (18.6%) patients experienced a major (n=34) or minor (n=18) bleeding event, predominantly from gastrointestinal origin. Platelet counts progressively decreased with the worsening of liver disease and were similar in patients with or without major or minor bleeding: a platelet count ≤50 × 10³/μl was detected in 3 (6%) patients with and in 20 (9%) patients without any bleeding event. Conversely, prothrombin time-international normalized ratio was slightly higher in patients with overall or major bleeding. On Cox proportional hazard analysis, only a previous gastrointestinal bleeding (hazard ratio (HR): 1.96; 95% confidence interval: 1.11-3.47; P=0.020) and encephalopathy (HR: 2.05; 95% confidence interval: 1.16-3.62; P=0.013) independently predicted overall bleeding events.

CONCLUSIONS

Platelet count does not predict unprovoked major or minor bleeding in cirrhotic patients.

Impact of liver disease on outcomes of patients hospitalized for epistaxis

OBJECTIVES

Liver disease (LD) often results in coagulation abnormalities that may predispose to more severe epistaxis. The purpose of this analysis was to examine characteristics of patients hospitalized for epistaxis with LD and explore the impact of LD on patient outcomes.

METHODS

The 2002 to 2013 National Inpatient Sample was queried for cases with a primary diagnosis of epistaxis. Cases with additional codes meeting the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality's definition of LD were identified and compared to the non-LD cohort.

RESULTS

Out of 39,879 cases meeting inclusion criteria, 3.6% had LD. LD was associated with younger age (55.7 years vs. 67.5 years; P < 0.001), longer hospital stay (3.9 days vs. 3.2 days; P < 0.001), and greater hospital charges ($26,141 vs. $18,200; P < 0.001) compared to the non-LD cohort. LD patients had higher rates of alcohol abuse, coagulopathy, chronic blood loss anemia, and renal failure. LD patients also had higher rates of sepsis, urinary/renal complications, respiratory failure, and infectious pneumonia. LD was associated with decreased rates of aggressive management (defined as ligation or embolization) (6.6%-9.0%; P < 0.002) and anterior or posterior nasal packing. In our multivariate logistic regression model correcting for age, gender, race, and significant comorbidities, LD was associated with 1.520 (1.336-1.729; P < 0.001) greater odds of transfusion and 2.264 (1.372-3.736; P = 0.001) greater odds of in-hospital mortality.

CONCLUSION

Among patients hospitalized for epistaxis, LD resulted in greater morbidity and mortality. Clinicians should be aware of the particular risk that LD bears on the hospitalized epistaxis patient.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

2C. Laryngoscope, 127:2691-2697, 2017.

Clot wave analysis and thromboembolic score in liver cirrhosis: two opposing phenomena

INTRODUCTION

Prothrombin time (PT) and activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT) are abnormal but unreliable in cirrhotic patients to express their risk of bleeding. However, these patients may also suffer from thrombotic episodes. In order to investigate the dynamics of the formation of fibrin, the clot waveform analysis (CWA) of aPTT was studied together with a score for the evaluation of the thromboembolic risk.

METHODS

CWA in terms of velocity (1st derivative), acceleration (2nd derivatives) and density (Delta) of aPTT and the Padua Prediction Score (PPS) for venous thromboembolism were studied in 191 cirrhotic patients.

RESULTS

CWA values were lower in the cirrhotic patients when compared to the control groups. However, Delta, 1st and 2nd derivatives were higher in cirrhotic patients with elevated PPS in comparison to those with a low PPS. The 1st derivative was significantly associated with a high PPS score (>4): OR: 2.66, CI: 95% 1.23-5.78.

CONCLUSIONS

Two opposing tendencies seem to be present in cirrhotic disease: the first shows a weakness of clot formation while the second a predisposition towards thrombosis, identified by the PPS.

Thromboelastography in Dogs with Chronic Hepatopathies

BACKGROUND

The coagulation status of dogs with liver disease is difficult to predict using conventional coagulation testing.

HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES

To evaluate thromboelastography (TEG) results and associations with conventional coagulation results and indicators of disease severity and prognosis in dogs with chronic hepatopathies (CH).

ANIMALS

Twenty-one client-owned dogs.

METHODS

Dogs with CH were prospectively (10 dogs) and retrospectively (11 dogs) enrolled from 2008 to 2014. Kaolin-activated TEG was performed and compared with reference intervals by t-tests or Mann-Whitney tests. Correlation coefficients for TEG results and conventional coagulation and clinicopathologic results were determined. Significance was set at P < .05.

RESULTS

Dogs with CH had significant increases in R (5.30 min vs 4.33 min), K (3.77 min vs 2.11 min), and LY30 (4.77% vs 0.68%) and decreased angles (55.3° vs 62.4°). G value defined 9 of 21, 7 of 21, and 5 of 21 dogs as normocoagulable, hypercoagulable, and hypocoagulable, respectively. G and MA were correlated with fibrinogen (r = 0.68, 0.83), prothrombin time (PT; r = -0.51, -0.53), and activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT; r = -0.50, -0.50). K was correlated with PT (r = 0.75) and protein C activity (r = -0.92). Angle was correlated with aPTT (r = -0.63). Clinical score was correlated with PT (r = 0.60), MA (r = -0.53), and R (r = -0.47). Dogs with hyperfibrinolysis (LY30 > 3.04%; 5 of 21) had significantly higher serum transaminase activities. Dogs with portal hypertension had significantly lower G, MA, and angle and prolonged, K, R, and PT.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Dogs with CH have variable TEG results. Negative prognostic indicators in CH correlate with hypocoagulable parameters on TEG. Hyperfibrinolysis in dogs with CH is associated with high disease activity.