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Harris AR, Daly SW, Pickering AJ, Mrisho M, Harris M, Davis J. Safe Today, Unsafe Tomorrow: Tanzanian Households Experience Variability in Drinking Water Quality. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:17481-17489. [PMID: 37922469 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c05275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2023]
Abstract
Measuring Escherichia coli in a single-grab sample of stored drinking water is often used to characterize drinking water quality. However, if water quality exhibits variability temporally, then one-time measurement schemes may be insufficient to adequately characterize the quality of water that people consume. This study uses longitudinal data collected from 193 households in peri-urban Tanzania to assess variability in stored water quality and to characterize uncertainty with different data collection schemes. Households were visited 5 times over the course of a year. At each visit, information was collected on water management practices, and a sample of stored drinking water was collected for E. coli enumeration. Water quality was poor for households, with 80% having highly contaminated (>100 CFU per 100 mL) water during at least one visit. There was substantial variability of water quality for households, with only 3% of households having the same category (low, medium, or high) of water quality for all five visits. These data suggest a single sample would inaccurately characterize a household's drinking water quality over the course of a year and lead to misestimates of population level access to safe drinking water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela R Harris
- Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, North Carolina State University, 915 Partners Way, Campus Box 7908, Raleigh, North Carolina 27606, United States
| | - Sean W Daly
- Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, North Carolina State University, 915 Partners Way, Campus Box 7908, Raleigh, North Carolina 27606, United States
| | - Amy J Pickering
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University California Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | | | - Michael Harris
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University California Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Jennifer Davis
- Environmental Engineering & Science, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
- Woods Institute for the Environment, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
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2
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Moses A, Ramírez-Andreotta MD, McLain JET, Obergh V, Rutin E, Sandhaus S, Kilungo AP. The efficacy of hydrogen sulfide (H 2S) tests for detecting microbial contamination in rooftop-harvested rainwater. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2023; 195:1398. [PMID: 37910273 PMCID: PMC10620290 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-023-11942-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Accepted: 10/05/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023]
Abstract
As climate change strains the world's freshwater resources, access to safe and clean water becomes limited. The use of alternative water sources, such as rooftop-harvested rainwater, has become one mechanism to address freshwater scarcity in the American Southwest, particularly when it comes to home gardening. The University of Arizona's Project Harvest, in partnership with the Sonora Environmental Research Institute, Inc., is a multi-year, co-created citizen science project aimed at increasing current understanding of harvested rainwater quality. Citizens in four Arizona, USA, communities (Hayden/Winkelman, Globe/Miami, Dewey-Humboldt, and Tucson) submitted harvested rainwater samples over 3 years. The harvested rainwater samples were then analyzed using IDEXX Colilert® for total coliforms and E. coli and using Hach PathoScreen™ test for sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB). This study design allows for the validation of a low-cost, at-home alternative methodology for testing rainwater for bacteria that may indicate fecal contamination. In total, 226 samples were tested using both methodologies, revealing a positive correlation (r=0.245; p<0.002) between total coliform MPN and SRB MPN, but no discernable correlation between E. coli MPN and SRB MPN. This work indicates a potential value of SRB testing for harvested rainwater if cost, laboratory access, and fecal contamination are of concern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arthur Moses
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Arizona, 1177 E. Fourth St, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Mónica D Ramírez-Andreotta
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Arizona, 1177 E. Fourth St, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
- Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, Department of Community, Environment and Policy, University of Arizona, 1295 N. Martin Ave, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Jean E T McLain
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Arizona, 1177 E. Fourth St, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
- Water Resources Research Center, University of Arizona, 350 N. Campbell Ave, Tucson, AZ, 85719, USA
| | - Victoria Obergh
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Arizona, 1177 E. Fourth St, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Emma Rutin
- Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, Department of Community, Environment and Policy, University of Arizona, 1295 N. Martin Ave, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Shana Sandhaus
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Arizona, 1177 E. Fourth St, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Aminata P Kilungo
- Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, Department of Community, Environment and Policy, University of Arizona, 1295 N. Martin Ave, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA.
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Murei A, Kamika I, Samie A, Momba MNB. Assessment of the water sources for potential channels of faecal contamination within Vhembe District Municipality using sanitary inspections and hydrogen sulphide test. Sci Rep 2023; 13:6250. [PMID: 37069206 PMCID: PMC10110511 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-33551-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 04/14/2023] [Indexed: 04/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Numerous human activities and poor sanitation management cause public health concern, particularly in rural communities without reliable water supply systems and resources for the monitoring of the quality of their water sources. This study assessed the relationship between observed sanitary risks and hydrogen sulphide (H2S) strip test results in the identification of faecal contamination of various water sources used at household level in rural areas of the Vhembe District Municipality. The highest percentage sanitary risk scores ranging from 50 to 100% were recorded for both river and dam water commonly used by the households for multiple purposes, including drinking. All the surface water samples (100%) also tested positive for H2S production, which is linked to the contamination of water sources by bacteria of faecal origin. The overall results showed a significant and positive correlation (r = 0.623, p = 0.003 in the wet season and r = 0.504, p = 0.017 in the dry season) between sanitary risk scores and H2S strip test results. In low resource settings, the use of sanitary inspections combined with the inexpensive and easy-to-use H2S strip tests can be effective as drinking water quality management tools to raise an awareness among community members of the faecal contamination of their water sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Murei
- Department of Environmental, Water and Earth Sciences, Tshwane University of Technology, Arcadia Campus, P/B X 680, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa.
| | - I Kamika
- Nanotechnology and Water Sustainability Research Unit, School of Science, College of Science, Engineering and Technology, Florida Campus, University of South Africa, P.O Box 392, Florida, 1710, Roodepoort, South Africa
| | - A Samie
- Molecular Parasitology and Opportunistic Infections Research Program, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Venda, Private Bag x5050, Thohoyandou, 0950, South Africa
| | - M N B Momba
- Department of Environmental, Water and Earth Sciences, Tshwane University of Technology, Arcadia Campus, P/B X 680, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa.
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Goddard FB, Ban R, Barr DB, Brown J, Cannon J, Colford JM, Eisenberg JNS, Ercumen A, Petach H, Freeman MC, Levy K, Luby SP, Moe C, Pickering AJ, Sarnat JA, Stewart J, Thomas E, Taniuchi M, Clasen T. Measuring Environmental Exposure to Enteric Pathogens in Low-Income Settings: Review and Recommendations of an Interdisciplinary Working Group. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:11673-11691. [PMID: 32813503 PMCID: PMC7547864 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c02421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2020] [Revised: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Infections with enteric pathogens impose a heavy disease burden, especially among young children in low-income countries. Recent findings from randomized controlled trials of water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions have raised questions about current methods for assessing environmental exposure to enteric pathogens. Approaches for estimating sources and doses of exposure suffer from a number of shortcomings, including reliance on imperfect indicators of fecal contamination instead of actual pathogens and estimating exposure indirectly from imprecise measurements of pathogens in the environment and human interaction therewith. These shortcomings limit the potential for effective surveillance of exposures, identification of important sources and modes of transmission, and evaluation of the effectiveness of interventions. In this review, we summarize current and emerging approaches used to characterize enteric pathogen hazards in different environmental media as well as human interaction with those media (external measures of exposure), and review methods that measure human infection with enteric pathogens as a proxy for past exposure (internal measures of exposure). We draw from lessons learned in other areas of environmental health to highlight how external and internal measures of exposure can be used to more comprehensively assess exposure. We conclude by recommending strategies for advancing enteric pathogen exposure assessments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederick
G. B. Goddard
- Gangarosa
Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Radu Ban
- Bill and
Melinda Gates Foundation, Seattle, Washington 98109, United States
| | - Dana Boyd Barr
- Gangarosa
Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Joe Brown
- School of
Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia
Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Jennifer Cannon
- Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention Foundation, Atlanta, Georgia 30308, United States
| | - John M. Colford
- Division
of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of California−Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Joseph N. S. Eisenberg
- Department
of Epidemiology, University of Michigan
School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Ayse Ercumen
- Department
of Forestry and Environmental Resources, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - Helen Petach
- U.S. Agency
for International Development, Washington, DC 20004, United States
| | - Matthew C. Freeman
- Gangarosa
Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Karen Levy
- Department
of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98105, United States
| | - Stephen P. Luby
- Division
of Infectious Diseases and Geographic Medicine, Stanford University, California 94305, United States
| | - Christine Moe
- Center
for
Global Safe Water, Sanitation and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public
Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Amy J. Pickering
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts 02155, United States
| | - Jeremy A. Sarnat
- Gangarosa
Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Jill Stewart
- Department
of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global
Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Evan Thomas
- Mortenson
Center in Global Engineering, University
of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80303, United States
| | - Mami Taniuchi
- Division
of Infectious Diseases and International Health, Department of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22903, United States
| | - Thomas Clasen
- Gangarosa
Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
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Sub-ppm-Level Ammonia Detection Using Photoacoustic Spectroscopy with an Optical Microphone Based on a Phase Interferometer. SENSORS 2019; 19:s19132890. [PMID: 31261929 PMCID: PMC6651058 DOI: 10.3390/s19132890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2019] [Revised: 06/21/2019] [Accepted: 06/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A sensitive optical microphone for photoacoustic spectroscopy based on the common path topology of a fibre laser Doppler vibrometer (FLDV) using phase-generated carrier demodulation and a slim diaphragm as an acoustic wave transducer was demonstrated. A resonant gas cell was adapted to enhance gas-detection performance and simultaneously provide efficient cancellation of the window background acoustic signal. Ammonia (NH3) was selected as the target gas. The absorption line was experimentally identified using a distributed feedback laser diode emitting at 1530 nm. The linearity and sensitivity of the gas sensor were measured using wavelength modulation spectroscopy with second harmonic detection. A Teflon diaphragm was used to implement the optical microphone, along with the FLDV, showing a minimum detectable pressure of 79.5 μPa/Hz1/2. The noise-equivalent absorption sensitivity for NH3 detection at the absorption line at 1531.7 nm was 1.85 × 10−8 W cm−1 Hz−1/2, and the limit of detection was 785 ppbv.
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Mertens A, Balakrishnan K, Ramaswamy P, Rajkumar P, Ramaprabha P, Durairaj N, Hubbard AE, Khush R, Colford JM, Arnold BF. Associations between High Temperature, Heavy Rainfall, and Diarrhea among Young Children in Rural Tamil Nadu, India: A Prospective Cohort Study. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2019; 127:47004. [PMID: 30986088 PMCID: PMC6785227 DOI: 10.1289/ehp3711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2018] [Revised: 02/21/2019] [Accepted: 03/19/2019] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The effects of weather on diarrhea could influence the health impacts of climate change. Children have the highest diarrhea incidence, especially in India, where many lack safe water and sanitation. OBJECTIVES In a prospective cohort of 1,284 children under 5 y of age from 900 households across 25 villages in rural Tamil Nadu, India, we examined whether high temperature and heavy rainfall was associated with increased all-cause diarrhea and water contamination. METHODS Seven-day prevalence of diarrhea was assessed monthly for up to 12 visits from January 2008 to April 2009, and hydrogen sulfide ([Formula: see text]) presence in drinking water, a fecal contamination indicator, was tested in a subset of households. We estimated associations between temperature and rainfall exposures and diarrhea and [Formula: see text] using binomial regressions, adjusting for potential confounders, random effects for village, and autoregressive-1 error terms for study week. RESULTS There were 259 cases of diarrhea. The prevalence of diarrhea during the 7 d before visits was 2.95 times higher (95% CI: 1.99, 4.39) when mean temperature in the week before the 7-d recall was in the hottest versus the coolest quartile of weekly mean temperature during 1 December 2007 to 15 April 2009. Diarrhea prevalence was 1.50 times higher when the 3 weeks before the diarrhea recall period included [Formula: see text] (vs. 0 d) with rainfall of [Formula: see text] (95% CI: 1.12, 2.02), and 2.60 times higher (95% CI: 1.55, 4.36) for heavy rain weeks following a 60-d dry period. The [Formula: see text] prevalence in household water was not associated with heavy rain prior to sample collection. CONCLUSIONS The results suggest that, in rural Tamil Nadu, heavy rainfall may wash pathogens that accumulate during dry weather into child contact. Higher temperatures were positively associated with diarrhea 1-3 weeks later. Our findings suggest that diarrhea morbidity could worsen under climate change without interventions to reduce enteric pathogen transmission through multiple pathways. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP3711.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Mertens
- 1 School of Public Health, University of California , Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Kalpana Balakrishnan
- 2 Department of Environmental and Health Engineering, Sri Ramachandra Medical College and Research Institute , Porur, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Padmavathi Ramaswamy
- 2 Department of Environmental and Health Engineering, Sri Ramachandra Medical College and Research Institute , Porur, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Paramasivan Rajkumar
- 2 Department of Environmental and Health Engineering, Sri Ramachandra Medical College and Research Institute , Porur, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Prabhakar Ramaprabha
- 2 Department of Environmental and Health Engineering, Sri Ramachandra Medical College and Research Institute , Porur, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Natesan Durairaj
- 2 Department of Environmental and Health Engineering, Sri Ramachandra Medical College and Research Institute , Porur, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Alan E Hubbard
- 1 School of Public Health, University of California , Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Ranjiv Khush
- 3 Aquaya Institute , San Francisco, California, USA
| | - John M Colford
- 1 School of Public Health, University of California , Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Benjamin F Arnold
- 1 School of Public Health, University of California , Berkeley, California, USA
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7
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Loo A, Bivins A, John V, Becker S, Evanchec S, George A, Hernandez V, Mullaney J, Tolentino L, Yoo R, Nagarnaik P, Labhasetwar P, Brown J. Development and field testing of low-cost, quantal microbial assays with volunteer reporting as scalable means of drinking water safety estimation. J Appl Microbiol 2019; 126:1944-1954. [PMID: 30884047 DOI: 10.1111/jam.14253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2018] [Revised: 02/06/2019] [Accepted: 03/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To evaluate a low-cost water quality test for at-scale drinking water safety estimation in rural India. METHODS AND RESULTS Within a longitudinal study to characterize variability in household drinking water safety in rural Maharashtra, we piloted a low-cost presence-absence (LCPA) microbial test designed to be used by volunteer residents in rural areas. In comparing the LCPA results with standard laboratory methods for enumeration of Escherichia coli, we found that LCPA tests using modified mTec media were highly sensitive in detecting drinking water of moderate risk (88% of tests were positive at E. coli counts of 11-100 CFU per 100 ml) and high risk (96% of tests were positive at E. coli counts of 101 + CFU per 100 ml). The LCPA tests demonstrated low specificity for E. coli specifically, due to concurrent detection of Klebsiella: 38% of LCPA tests were positive even when E. coli was not detected in a 100 ml sample by membrane filtration, suggesting the test would be conservative in risk estimation. We also found that 47% of participants in rural villages in India were willing to conduct tests and return results after a brief training, with 45% of active participants sending their water testing results via short message service. CONCLUSIONS Given their low cost (~US$0.50 as piloted) and open-source format, such tests may provide a compelling alternative to standard methods for rapid water quality assessments, especially in resource-limited settings. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY The lack of availability of water quality data constrains efforts to monitor, evaluate and improve the safety of water and sanitation infrastructure in underserved settings. Current water testing methods are not scalable because of laboratory and cost constraints. Our findings indicate the LCPA or similar low-cost microbial tests could be useful in rapid water safety estimation, including via crowdsourcing.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Loo
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - A Bivins
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - V John
- National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur, India
| | - S Becker
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - S Evanchec
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - A George
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - V Hernandez
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - J Mullaney
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - L Tolentino
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - R Yoo
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - P Nagarnaik
- National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur, India
| | - P Labhasetwar
- National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur, India
| | - J Brown
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
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8
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Identification of Human and Animal Fecal Contamination in Drinking Water Sources in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, Using Host-Associated Bacteroidales Quantitative PCR Assays. WATER 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/w10121796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This study identified the sources of fecal contamination in the groundwater of different land covers. A total of 300 groundwater samples were collected in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, in the dry (n = 152) and wet (n = 148) seasons of 2016. Fecal indicator bacteria were initially enumerated, and then fecal contamination sources were identified using human (BacHum), ruminant (BacR), and pig-associated (Pig2Bac) Bacteroidales quantitative polymerase chain reaction assays. Sixty-six percent (197/300) of the tested groundwater samples had Escherichia coli concentrations higher than the World Health Organization threshold for drinking (<1 most probable number/100 mL). The fecal contamination of the groundwater was of human (22%, 55/250), ruminant (11%, 28/250), and pig (3%, 8/250) origin. Deep tube wells were less likely to be positive for E. coli and fecal markers compared to shallow dug wells. The human fecal marker was more likely to be detected in sources from built-up as compared to agricultural areas (Adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 3.60, p = 0.002). Likewise, the ruminant fecal marker was more likely to be detected in sources from agricultural as compared to built-up areas (AOR = 2.90, p = 0.018). These findings suggest the preparation of mitigation strategies for controlling fecal pollution based on land cover and well types.
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Pickering AJ, Ercumen A, Arnold BF, Kwong LH, Parvez SM, Alam M, Sen D, Islam S, Kullmann C, Chase C, Ahmed R, Unicomb L, Colford JM, Luby SP. Fecal Indicator Bacteria along Multiple Environmental Transmission Pathways (Water, Hands, Food, Soil, Flies) and Subsequent Child Diarrhea in Rural Bangladesh. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2018; 52:7928-7936. [PMID: 29902374 PMCID: PMC7705120 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b00928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2018] [Revised: 06/09/2018] [Accepted: 06/14/2018] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Enteric pathogens can be transmitted through multiple environmental pathways, yet little is known about the relative contribution of each pathway to diarrhea risk among children. We aimed to identify fecal transmission pathways in the household environment associated with prospectively measured child diarrhea in rural Bangladesh. We measured the presence and levels of Escherichia coli in tube wells, stored drinking water, pond water, child hand rinses, courtyard soil, flies, and food in 1843 households. Gastrointestinal symptoms among children ages 0-60 months were recorded concurrently at the time of environmental sample collection and again a median of 6 days later. Incident diarrhea (3 or more loose stools in a 24-h period) was positively associated with the concentration of E. coli on child hands measured on the first visit (incidence rate ratio [IRR] = 1.23, 95% CI 1.06, 1.43 for a log10 increase), while other pathways were not associated. In cross-sectional analysis, there were no associations between concurrently measured environmental contamination and diarrhea. Our findings suggest higher levels of E. coli on child hands are strongly associated with subsequent diarrheal illness rates among children in rural Bangladesh.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy J. Pickering
- Woods Institute for the Environment, Stanford University, Stanford, California United States
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Science and Engineering Complex, 200 College Avenue, Medford, Massachusetts United States
- Corresponding Author E-mail: . Phone: 617-627-5163
| | - Ayse Ercumen
- Division of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, California United States
- Department of Forestry and Environmental Resources, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina United States
| | - Benjamin F. Arnold
- Division of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, California United States
| | - Laura H. Kwong
- Woods Institute for the Environment, Stanford University, Stanford, California United States
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California United States
| | | | - Mahfuja Alam
- Infectious Disease Division, icddr,b Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
| | - Debashis Sen
- Infectious Disease Division, icddr,b Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
| | - Sharmin Islam
- Infectious Disease Division, icddr,b Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
| | - Craig Kullmann
- Water Global Practice, World Bank, Washington, D.C. 20433, United States
| | - Claire Chase
- Water Global Practice, World Bank, Washington, D.C. 20433, United States
| | - Rokeya Ahmed
- Water Global Practice, World Bank, Dhaka 1207, Bangladesh
| | - Leanne Unicomb
- Infectious Disease Division, icddr,b Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
| | - John M. Colford
- Division of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, California United States
| | - Stephen P. Luby
- Woods Institute for the Environment, Stanford University, Stanford, California United States
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Matwewe F, Hyland K, Thomas J. Locally produced hydrogen sulphide detecting water quality test kits increase household level monitoring in rural Tanzania. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2018; 16:359-368. [PMID: 29952325 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2018.220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
In developing countries, rural water sources have the highest levels of faecal contamination but are the least monitored. Affordable field-based water quality tests are needed. The presence of faecal indicator bacteria can be determined with hydrogen sulphide (H2S) detecting tests, that are inexpensive and simple to make locally. In rural Tanzania, a non-governmental organisation (NGO) designed, produced and evaluated a new H2S water quality test kit. The H2S test results correlated with log10 Escherichia coli densities from conventional water quality tests. The production cost was US$ 1.10 and the test retailed for US$ 1.37. In total, 433 tests were sold through local pharmacies and NGOs. Additionally, 165 WaSH education meetings, reaching 3,408 community members, were conducted with the H2S test demonstrated in over half the meetings. Pre- and post-surveys of 294 meeting participants saw an increased reporting of household level water treatment by 24%. The H2S test was widely accepted, with 94% of those surveyed willing to buy the test in the future. International and national guidelines for drinking water monitoring need to be amended to include locally produced H2S water quality tests. This will enable households to monitor their own water sources and make informed choices about water safety and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatuma Matwewe
- Environmental Health and Ecological Sciences, Ifakara Health Institute, P.O. Box 53, Ifakara, Morogoro, Tanzania E-mail:
| | - Kate Hyland
- Maji Safi kwa Afya Bora (MSABI), P.O. Box 284, Ifakara, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - Jacqueline Thomas
- Environmental Health and Ecological Sciences, Ifakara Health Institute, P.O. Box 53, Ifakara, Morogoro, Tanzania E-mail: ; Pollution Research Group, Chemical Engineering, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4041, South Africa; Water Research Centre, The University of New South Wales, Kensington, NSW 2052, Australia; and School of Civil Engineering, The University of Sydney, Darlington, NSW 2008, Australia
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11
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Brief Report: Negative Controls to Detect Selection Bias and Measurement Bias in Epidemiologic Studies. Epidemiology 2018; 27:637-41. [PMID: 27182642 PMCID: PMC4969055 DOI: 10.1097/ede.0000000000000504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Supplemental Digital Content is available in the text. Biomedical laboratory experiments routinely use negative controls to identify possible sources of bias, but epidemiologic studies have infrequently used this type of control in their design or measurement approach. Recently, epidemiologists proposed the routine use of negative controls in observational studies and defined the structure of negative controls to detect bias due to unmeasured confounding. We extend this previous study and define the structure of negative controls to detect selection bias and measurement bias in both observational studies and randomized trials. We illustrate the strengths and limitations of negative controls in this context using examples from the epidemiologic literature. Given their demonstrated utility and broad generalizability, the routine use of prespecified negative controls will strengthen the evidence from epidemiologic studies.
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Islam M, Ercumen A, Naser AM, Unicomb L, Rahman M, Arnold BF, Colford JM, Luby SP. Effectiveness of the Hydrogen Sulfide Test as a Water Quality Indicator for Diarrhea Risk in Rural Bangladesh. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2017; 97:1867-1871. [PMID: 29141754 PMCID: PMC5805062 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.17-0387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbiological water quality is usually assessed by the identification of Escherichia coli (E. coli), a fecal indicator. The hydrogen sulfide (H2S) test is an inexpensive, easy-to-use, and portable alternative field-based water quality test. Our study evaluated the H2S test’s effectiveness as a water quality indicator for diarrhea risk. Field workers collected stored drinking water samples for H2S analysis and detection of E. coli by membrane filtration and measured caregiver-reported diarrhea among children < 5 years in the same households 1 month later. We assessed the association between the H2S test (incubated for 24 hours and 48 hours) and diarrhea prevalence, with 2-day and 7-day symptom recall periods (N = 1,348). We determined the sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive value (PPV, NPV) of the H2S test compared with E. coli (N = 525). Controlling for potentially confounding covariates, H2S-positive water (at 24 or 48 hours) was not associated with 2-day diarrhea prevalence (24-hour prevalence ratio [PR] = 1.03, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.63–1.69; 48-hour PR = 0.89, 95% CI: 0.58–1.38) or 7-day diarrhea prevalence (24-hour PR = 1.17, 95% CI: 0.76–1.78; 48-hour PR = 1.21, 95% CI: 0.81–1.80). The sensitivity, PPV, and NPV of the H2S test was significantly higher when the H2S test was incubated for 48 versus 24 hours whereas specificity showed the opposite trend. H2S test sensitivity, PPV, and NPV increased with increasing E. coli levels, consistent with previous evidence that the H2S test is a useful water quality tool in high-contamination settings. However, our results suggest that the H2S test is not an effective indicator for waterborne diarrhea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahfuza Islam
- Environmental Intervention Unit, Enteric and Respiratory Infections Program, Infectious Disease Division, International Centre for Diarrheal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b)
| | - Ayse Ercumen
- Division of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, California
| | - Abu Mohd Naser
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences. Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Leanne Unicomb
- Environmental Intervention Unit, Enteric and Respiratory Infections Program, Infectious Disease Division, International Centre for Diarrheal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b)
| | - Mahbubur Rahman
- Environmental Intervention Unit, Enteric and Respiratory Infections Program, Infectious Disease Division, International Centre for Diarrheal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b)
| | - Benjamin F Arnold
- Division of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, California
| | - John M Colford
- Division of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, California
| | - Stephen P Luby
- Woods Institute for the Environment, Stanford University, Stanford, California
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Ercumen A, Arnold BF, Naser AM, Unicomb L, Colford JM, Luby SP. Potential sources of bias in the use of Escherichia coli to measure waterborne diarrhoea risk in low-income settings. Trop Med Int Health 2016; 22:2-11. [PMID: 27797430 DOI: 10.1111/tmi.12803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Escherichia coli is the standard water quality indicator for diarrhoea risk. Yet, the association between E. coli and diarrhoea is inconsistent across studies without a systematic assessment of methodological differences behind this variation. Most studies measure water quality cross-sectionally with diarrhoea, risking exposure misclassification and reverse causation. Studies use different recall windows for self-reported diarrhoea; longer periods increase potential outcome misclassification through misrecall. Control of confounding is inconsistent across studies. Additionally, diarrhoea measured in unblinded intervention trials can present courtesy bias. We utilised measurements from a randomised trial of water interventions in Bangladesh to assess how these factors affect the E. coli-diarrhoea association. METHODS We compared cross-sectional versus prospective measurements of water quality and diarrhoea, 2-versus 7-day symptom recall periods, estimates with and without controlling for confounding and using measurements from control versus intervention arms of the trial. RESULTS In the control arm, 2-day diarrhoea prevalence, measured prospectively 1 month after water quality, significantly increased with log10 E. coli (PR = 1.50, 1.02-2.20). This association weakened when we used 7-day recall (PR = 1.18, 0.88-1.57), cross-sectional measurements of E. coli and diarrhoea (PR = 1.11, 0.79-1.56) or did not control for confounding (PR = 1.20, 0.88-1.62). Including data from intervention arms led to less interpretable associations, potentially due to courtesy bias, effect modification and/or reverse causation. CONCLUSIONS By systematically addressing potential sources of bias, our analysis demonstrates a clear relationship between E. coli in drinking water and diarrhoea, suggesting that the continued use of E. coli as an indicator of waterborne diarrhoea risk is justified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayse Ercumen
- Division of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Benjamin F Arnold
- Division of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Abu Mohd Naser
- Infectious Disease Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Dhaka, Bangladesh.,Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Leanne Unicomb
- Infectious Disease Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - John M Colford
- Division of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Stephen P Luby
- Infectious Disease Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Dhaka, Bangladesh.,School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
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Kumpel E, Peletz R, Bonham M, Khush R. Assessing Drinking Water Quality and Water Safety Management in Sub-Saharan Africa Using Regulated Monitoring Data. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2016; 50:10869-10876. [PMID: 27559754 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b02707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Universal access to safe drinking water is prioritized in the post-2015 Sustainable Development Goals. Collecting reliable and actionable water quality information in low-resource settings, however, is challenging, and little is known about the correspondence between water quality data collected by local monitoring agencies and global frameworks for water safety. Using 42 926 microbial water quality test results from 32 surveillance agencies and water suppliers in seven sub-Saharan African countries, we determined the degree to which water sources were monitored, how water quality varied by source type, and institutional responses to results. Sixty-four percent of the water samples were collected from piped supplies, although the majority of Africans rely on nonpiped sources. Piped supplies had the lowest levels of fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) compared to any other source type: only 4% of samples of water piped to plots and 2% of samples from water piped to public taps/standpipes were positive for FIB (n = 14 948 and n = 12 278, respectively). Among other types of improved sources, samples from harvested rainwater and boreholes were less often positive for FIB (22%, n = 167 and 31%, n = 3329, respectively) than protected springs or protected dug wells (39%, n = 472 and 65%, n = 505). When data from different settings were aggregated, the FIB levels in different source types broadly reflected the source-type water safety framework used by the Joint Monitoring Programme. However, the insufficient testing of nonpiped sources relative to their use indicates important gaps in current assessments. Our results emphasize the importance of local data collection for water safety management and measurement of progress toward universal safe drinking water access.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Kumpel
- The Aquaya Institute , PO Box 21862, Nairobi, Kenya
| | | | | | - Ranjiv Khush
- The Aquaya Institute , 12 E Sir Francis Drake Blvd, Suite E, Larkspur, California 94939 United States
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15
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Seasonality of water quality and diarrheal disease counts in urban and rural settings in south India. Sci Rep 2016; 6:20521. [PMID: 26867519 PMCID: PMC4751522 DOI: 10.1038/srep20521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2015] [Accepted: 01/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The study examined relationships among meteorological parameters, water quality and diarrheal disease counts in two urban and three rural sites in Tamil Nadu, India. Disease surveillance was conducted between August 2010 and March 2012; concurrently water samples from street-level taps in piped distribution systems and from household storage containers were tested for pH, nitrate, total dissolved solids, and total and fecal coliforms. Methodological advances in data collection (concurrent prospective disease surveillance and environmental monitoring) and analysis (preserving temporality within the data through time series analysis) were used to quantify independent effects of meteorological conditions and water quality on diarrheal risk. The utility of a local calendar in communicating seasonality is also presented. Piped distribution systems in the study area showed high seasonal fluctuations in water quality. Higher ambient temperature decreased and higher rainfall increased diarrheal risk with temperature being the predominant factor in urban and rainfall in rural sites. Associations with microbial contamination were inconsistent; however, disease risk in the urban sites increased with higher median household total coliform concentrations. Understanding seasonal patterns in health outcomes and their temporal links to environmental exposures may lead to improvements in prospective environmental and disease surveillance tailored to addressing public health problems.
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Shields KF, Bain RES, Cronk R, Wright JA, Bartram J. Association of Supply Type with Fecal Contamination of Source Water and Household Stored Drinking Water in Developing Countries: A Bivariate Meta-analysis. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2015; 123:1222-31. [PMID: 25956006 PMCID: PMC4671240 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.1409002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2014] [Accepted: 05/06/2015] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Access to safe drinking water is essential for health. Monitoring access to drinking water focuses on water supply type at the source, but there is limited evidence on whether quality differences at the source persist in water stored in the household. OBJECTIVES We assessed the extent of fecal contamination at the source and in household stored water (HSW) and explored the relationship between contamination at each sampling point and water supply type. METHODS We performed a bivariate random-effects meta-analysis of 45 studies, identified through a systematic review, that reported either the proportion of samples free of fecal indicator bacteria and/or individual sample bacteria counts for source and HSW, disaggregated by supply type. RESULTS Water quality deteriorated substantially between source and stored water. The mean percentage of contaminated samples (noncompliance) at the source was 46% (95% CI: 33, 60%), whereas mean noncompliance in HSW was 75% (95% CI: 64, 84%). Water supply type was significantly associated with noncompliance at the source (p < 0.001) and in HSW (p = 0.03). Source water (OR = 0.2; 95% CI: 0.1, 0.5) and HSW (OR = 0.3; 95% CI: 0.2, 0.8) from piped supplies had significantly lower odds of contamination compared with non-piped water, potentially due to residual chlorine. CONCLUSIONS Piped water is less likely to be contaminated compared with other water supply types at both the source and in HSW. A focus on upgrading water services to piped supplies may help improve safety, including for those drinking stored water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine F Shields
- The Water Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill North Carolina, USA
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Luby SP, Halder AK, Huda TM, Unicomb L, Sirajul Islam M, Arnold BF, Johnston RB. Microbiological Contamination of Drinking Water Associated with Subsequent Child Diarrhea. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2015; 93:904-911. [PMID: 26438031 PMCID: PMC4703288 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.15-0274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2015] [Accepted: 08/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
We used a prospective, longitudinal cohort enrolled as part of a program evaluation to assess the relationship between drinking water microbiological quality and child diarrhea. We included 50 villages across rural Bangladesh. Within each village field-workers enrolled a systematic random sample of 10 households with a child under the age of 3 years. Community monitors visited households monthly and recorded whether children under the age of 5 years had diarrhea in the preceding 2 days. Every 3 months, a research assistant visited the household and requested a water sample from the source or container used to provide drinking water to the child. Laboratory technicians measured the concentration of Escherichia coli in the water samples using membrane filtration. Of drinking water samples, 59% (2,273/3,833) were contaminated with E. coli. Of 12,192 monthly follow-up visits over 2 years, mothers reported that their child had diarrhea in the preceding 2 days in 1,156 (9.5%) visits. In a multivariable general linear model, the log10 of E. coli contamination of the preceding drinking water sample was associated with an increased prevalence of child diarrhea (prevalence ratio = 1.14, 95% CI = 1.05, 1.23). These data provide further evidence of the health benefits of improved microbiological quality of drinking water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen P. Luby
- *Address correspondence to Stephen P. Luby, Division of Infectious Diseases, Stanford University, Yang and Yamazaki Environment and Energy Building (Y2E2), MC 4205, 473 Via Ortega, Stanford, CA 94305. E-mail:
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Ganguly E, Sharma PK, Bunker CH. Prevalence and risk factors of diarrhea morbidity among under-five children in India: A systematic review and meta-analysis. INDIAN JOURNAL OF CHILD HEALTH 2015; 2:152-160. [PMID: 26925453 PMCID: PMC4764679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Acute diarrhea accounts for a huge burden of infectious diseases in under-five children. OBJECTIVE This systematic review was carried out to study the prevalence and associated risk factors of diarrhea among Indian children aged <5 years. METHODS Papers were identified by a comprehensive electronic search of relevant medical subject heading (MeSH) terms in PubMed. Identified articles were independently reviewed against inclusion/exclusion criteria and rated for quality. 15 articles were abstracted and reviewed to identify the reported prevalence and risk factors for childhood diarrhea. Meta-analysis was done for calculating the pooled prevalence of diarrhea and point estimates of risk factors using random effects model with use of appropriate population weights, and depicted using forest plot. RESULTS The overall prevalence of diarrhea between 2002 and 2013 was 21.70% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 11.24-34.46). The significantly associated risk factors were malnutrition (odds ratio [OR]: 1.73, 95% CI: 1.53-1.96) and anemia (OR: 1.71, 95% CI: 1.29-2.28) in child, and low socioeconomic status (OR: 7.14, 95% CI: 2.19-23.32). Age of the child <24 months, not breastfeeding, mothers' low literacy status and untreated drinking water did not show a significant association. Sex of the child, religion, higher education of mothers, and seasonality were found to be inconsistently associated in single studies. CONCLUSION It was concluded that there is sufficient evidence on the association of childhood diarrhea with socio-demographic factors, but evidence on other contributory factors including breastfeeding and vaccination is inconclusive. There is need to conduct more analytical studies on lesser known risk factors of diarrhea to establish their risk factors in Indian children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enakshi Ganguly
- Department of Community Medicine, Share India - MediCiti Institute of Medical Sciences, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
| | - Pawan K Sharma
- Department of Community Medicine, Share India - MediCiti Institute of Medical Sciences, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
| | - Clareann H Bunker
- Department of Epidemiology, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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Heitzinger K, Rocha CA, Quick RE, Montano SM, Tilley DH, Mock CN, Carrasco AJ, Cabrera RM, Hawes SE. "Improved" But Not Necessarily Safe: An Assessment of Fecal Contamination of Household Drinking Water in Rural Peru. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2015. [PMID: 26195455 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.14-0802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The indicator used to measure progress toward the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) for water is access to an improved water supply. However, improved supplies are frequently fecally contaminated in developing countries. We examined factors associated with Escherichia coli contamination of improved water supplies in rural Pisco province, Peru. A random sample of 207 households with at least one child less than 5 years old was surveyed, and water samples from the source and storage container were tested for E. coli contamination. Although over 90% of households used an improved water source, 47% of source and 43% of stored water samples were contaminated with E. coli. Pouring or using a spigot to obtain water from the storage container instead of dipping a hand or object was associated with decreased risk of contamination of stored water (adjusted prevalence ratio [aPR] = 0.58, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.42, 0.80). Container cleanliness (aPR = 0.67, 95% CI = 0.45, 1.00) and correct handwashing technique (aPR = 0.62, 95% CI = 0.42, 0.90) were also associated with decreased contamination risk. These findings highlighted the limitations of improved water supplies as an indicator of safe water access. To ensure water safety in the home, household water treatment and improved hygiene, water handling, and storage practices should be promoted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristen Heitzinger
- Department of Epidemiology, University Of Washington, Seattle, Washington; Bacteriology Department, U.S. Naval Medical Research Unit No. 6, Callao, Peru; Waterborne Diseases Prevention Branch, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Department of Environmental Health, Hospital San Juan de Dios, Ica Regional Ministry of Health, Pisco, Peru
| | - Claudio A Rocha
- Department of Epidemiology, University Of Washington, Seattle, Washington; Bacteriology Department, U.S. Naval Medical Research Unit No. 6, Callao, Peru; Waterborne Diseases Prevention Branch, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Department of Environmental Health, Hospital San Juan de Dios, Ica Regional Ministry of Health, Pisco, Peru
| | - Robert E Quick
- Department of Epidemiology, University Of Washington, Seattle, Washington; Bacteriology Department, U.S. Naval Medical Research Unit No. 6, Callao, Peru; Waterborne Diseases Prevention Branch, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Department of Environmental Health, Hospital San Juan de Dios, Ica Regional Ministry of Health, Pisco, Peru
| | - Silvia M Montano
- Department of Epidemiology, University Of Washington, Seattle, Washington; Bacteriology Department, U.S. Naval Medical Research Unit No. 6, Callao, Peru; Waterborne Diseases Prevention Branch, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Department of Environmental Health, Hospital San Juan de Dios, Ica Regional Ministry of Health, Pisco, Peru
| | - Drake H Tilley
- Department of Epidemiology, University Of Washington, Seattle, Washington; Bacteriology Department, U.S. Naval Medical Research Unit No. 6, Callao, Peru; Waterborne Diseases Prevention Branch, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Department of Environmental Health, Hospital San Juan de Dios, Ica Regional Ministry of Health, Pisco, Peru
| | - Charles N Mock
- Department of Epidemiology, University Of Washington, Seattle, Washington; Bacteriology Department, U.S. Naval Medical Research Unit No. 6, Callao, Peru; Waterborne Diseases Prevention Branch, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Department of Environmental Health, Hospital San Juan de Dios, Ica Regional Ministry of Health, Pisco, Peru
| | - A Jannet Carrasco
- Department of Epidemiology, University Of Washington, Seattle, Washington; Bacteriology Department, U.S. Naval Medical Research Unit No. 6, Callao, Peru; Waterborne Diseases Prevention Branch, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Department of Environmental Health, Hospital San Juan de Dios, Ica Regional Ministry of Health, Pisco, Peru
| | - Ricardo M Cabrera
- Department of Epidemiology, University Of Washington, Seattle, Washington; Bacteriology Department, U.S. Naval Medical Research Unit No. 6, Callao, Peru; Waterborne Diseases Prevention Branch, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Department of Environmental Health, Hospital San Juan de Dios, Ica Regional Ministry of Health, Pisco, Peru
| | - Stephen E Hawes
- Department of Epidemiology, University Of Washington, Seattle, Washington; Bacteriology Department, U.S. Naval Medical Research Unit No. 6, Callao, Peru; Waterborne Diseases Prevention Branch, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Department of Environmental Health, Hospital San Juan de Dios, Ica Regional Ministry of Health, Pisco, Peru
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Najnin N, Arman S, Abedin J, Unicomb L, Levine DI, Mahmud M, Leder K, Yeasmin F, Luoto JE, Albert J, Luby SP. Explaining low rates of sustained use of siphon water filter: evidence from follow-up of a randomised controlled trial in Bangladesh. Trop Med Int Health 2015; 20:471-83. [PMID: 25495859 DOI: 10.1111/tmi.12448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To assess sustained siphon filter usage among a low-income population in Bangladesh and study relevant motivators and barriers. METHODS After a randomised control trial in Bangladesh during 2009, 191 households received a siphon water filter along with educational messages. Researchers revisited households after 3 and 6 months to assess filter usage and determine relevant motivators and barriers. Regular users were defined as those who reported using the filter most of the time and were observed to be using the filter at follow-up visits. Integrated behavioural model for water, sanitation and hygiene (IBM-WASH) was used to explain factors associated with regular filter use. RESULTS Regular filter usage was 28% at the 3-month follow-up and 21% at the 6-month follow-up. Regular filter users had better quality water at the 6-month, but not at the 3-month visit. Positive predictors of regular filter usage explained through IBM-WASH at both times were willingness to pay >US$1 for filters, and positive attitude towards filter use (technology dimension at individual level); reporting boiling drinking water at baseline (psychosocial dimension at habitual level); and Bengali ethnicity (contextual dimension at individual level). Frequently reported barriers to regular filter use were as follows: considering filter use an additional task, filter breakage and time required for water filtering (technology dimension at individual level). CONCLUSION The technological, psychosocial and contextual dimensions of IBM-WASH contributed to understanding the factors related to sustained use of siphon filter. Given the low regular usage rate and the hardware-related problems reported, the contribution of siphon filters to improving water quality in low-income urban communities in Bangladesh is likely to be minimal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nusrat Najnin
- International Center for Diarrheal Disease Research, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Monash, Melbourne, Australia
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21
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Arnold BF, Khush RS, Ramaswamy P, Rajkumar P, Durairaj N, Ramaprabha P, Balakrishnan K, Colford JM. Reactivity in rapidly collected hygiene and toilet spot check measurements: a cautionary note for longitudinal studies. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2014; 92:159-62. [PMID: 25385856 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.14-0306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Discreet collection of spot check observations to measure household hygiene conditions is a common measurement technique in epidemiologic studies of hygiene in low-income countries. The objective of this study was to determine whether the collection of spot check observations in longitudinal studies could itself induce reactivity (i.e., change participant behavior). We analyzed data from a 12-month prospective cohort study in rural Tamil Nadu, India that was conducted in the absence of any hygiene or toilet promotion activities. Our data included hygiene and toilet spot checks from 10,427 household visits. We found substantial evidence of participant reactivity to spot check observations of hygiene practices that were easy to modify on short notice. For example, soap observed at the household's primary handwashing location increased from 49% at enrollment to 81% by the fourth visit and remained at or above 77% for the remainder of the study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin F Arnold
- Division of Epidemiology, University of California, Berkeley, California; Aquaya Institute, San Francisco, California; Physiology, Sri Ramachandra Medical College and Research Institute, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India; Environmental Health Engineering, Sri Ramachandra Medical College and Research Institute, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Ranjiv S Khush
- Division of Epidemiology, University of California, Berkeley, California; Aquaya Institute, San Francisco, California; Physiology, Sri Ramachandra Medical College and Research Institute, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India; Environmental Health Engineering, Sri Ramachandra Medical College and Research Institute, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Padmavathi Ramaswamy
- Division of Epidemiology, University of California, Berkeley, California; Aquaya Institute, San Francisco, California; Physiology, Sri Ramachandra Medical College and Research Institute, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India; Environmental Health Engineering, Sri Ramachandra Medical College and Research Institute, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Paramasivan Rajkumar
- Division of Epidemiology, University of California, Berkeley, California; Aquaya Institute, San Francisco, California; Physiology, Sri Ramachandra Medical College and Research Institute, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India; Environmental Health Engineering, Sri Ramachandra Medical College and Research Institute, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Natesan Durairaj
- Division of Epidemiology, University of California, Berkeley, California; Aquaya Institute, San Francisco, California; Physiology, Sri Ramachandra Medical College and Research Institute, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India; Environmental Health Engineering, Sri Ramachandra Medical College and Research Institute, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Prabhakar Ramaprabha
- Division of Epidemiology, University of California, Berkeley, California; Aquaya Institute, San Francisco, California; Physiology, Sri Ramachandra Medical College and Research Institute, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India; Environmental Health Engineering, Sri Ramachandra Medical College and Research Institute, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Kalpana Balakrishnan
- Division of Epidemiology, University of California, Berkeley, California; Aquaya Institute, San Francisco, California; Physiology, Sri Ramachandra Medical College and Research Institute, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India; Environmental Health Engineering, Sri Ramachandra Medical College and Research Institute, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - John M Colford
- Division of Epidemiology, University of California, Berkeley, California; Aquaya Institute, San Francisco, California; Physiology, Sri Ramachandra Medical College and Research Institute, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India; Environmental Health Engineering, Sri Ramachandra Medical College and Research Institute, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
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Mattioli MC, Boehm AB, Davis J, Harris AR, Mrisho M, Pickering AJ. Enteric pathogens in stored drinking water and on caregiver's hands in Tanzanian households with and without reported cases of child diarrhea. PLoS One 2014; 9:e84939. [PMID: 24392161 PMCID: PMC3879350 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0084939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2013] [Accepted: 11/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Diarrhea is one of the leading causes of mortality in young children. Diarrheal pathogens are transmitted via the fecal-oral route, and for children the majority of this transmission is thought to occur within the home. However, very few studies have documented enteric pathogens within households of low-income countries. METHODS AND FINDINGS The presence of molecular markers for three enteric viruses (enterovirus, adenovirus, and rotavirus), seven Escherichia coli virulence genes (ECVG), and human-specific Bacteroidales was assessed in hand rinses and household stored drinking water in Bagamoyo, Tanzania. Using a matched case-control study design, we examined the relationship between contamination of hands and water with these markers and child diarrhea. We found that the presence of ECVG in household stored water was associated with a significant decrease in the odds of a child within the home having diarrhea (OR = 0.51; 95% confidence interval 0.27-0.93). We also evaluated water management and hygiene behaviors. Recent hand contact with water or food was positively associated with detection of enteric pathogen markers on hands, as was relatively lower volumes of water reportedly used for daily hand washing. Enteropathogen markers in stored drinking water were more likely found among households in which the markers were also detected on hands, as well as in households with unimproved water supply and sanitation infrastructure. CONCLUSIONS The prevalence of enteric pathogen genes and the human-specific Bacteroidales fecal marker in stored water and on hands suggests extensive environmental contamination within homes both with and without reported child diarrhea. Better stored water quality among households with diarrhea indicates caregivers with sick children may be more likely to ensure safe drinking water in the home. Interventions to increase the quantity of water available for hand washing, and to improve food hygiene, may reduce exposure to enteric pathogens in the domestic environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mia Catharine Mattioli
- Environmental and Water Studies, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Alexandria B. Boehm
- Environmental and Water Studies, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Jennifer Davis
- Environmental and Water Studies, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
- Woods Institute for the Environment, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Angela R. Harris
- Environmental and Water Studies, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Mwifadhi Mrisho
- Ifakara Health Institute, Bagamoyo Research and Training Unit, Bagamoyo, Tanzania
| | - Amy J. Pickering
- Environmental and Water Studies, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
- Woods Institute for the Environment, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
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