Long-Tailed Macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in Urban Landscapes: Gastrointestinal Parasitism and Barriers for Healthy Coexistence in Northeast Thailand

Full-length 16S rDNA sequencing based on Oxford Nanopore Technologies revealed the association between gut-pharyngeal microbiota and tuberculosis in cynomolgus macaques

Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (Mtbc), which develops from asymptomatic latent TB to active stages. The microbiome was purposed as a potential factor affecting TB pathogenesis, but the study was limited. The present study explored the association between gut-pharyngeal microbiome and TB stages in cynomolgus macaques using the full-length 16S rDNA amplicon sequencing based on Oxford Nanopore Technologies. The total of 71 macaques was divided into TB (-) control, TB (+) latent and TB (+) active groups. The differential abundance analysis showed that Haemophilus hemolyticus was decreased, while Prevotella species were increased in the pharyngeal microbiome of TB (+) macaques. In addition, Eubacterium coprostanoligenes in the gut was enriched in TB (+) macaques. Alteration of these bacteria might affect immune regulation and TB severity, but details of mechanisms should be further explored and validated. In summary, microbiota may be associated with host immune regulation and affect TB progression. The findings suggested the potential mechanisms of host-microbes interaction, which may improve the understanding of the role of microbiota and help develop therapeutics for TB in the future.

Gastro-intestinal parasites of urban rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal

Intestinal parasitic infections such as amoebiasis, ascariasis, hookworm infection, and trichuriasis are the most common infections among non-human primates (NHPs). There are always the possibilities of transmission these parasites between humans and NHPs. Multiple groups of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) live in the urban area of Kathmandu Valley near human settlements, however the gastrointestinal (GI) parasitic infections in those macaques are understudied. This study aimed to explore the GI parasites in free-ranging macaques from Pashupatinath, Swayambhunath, Tripureshwor, Nilbarahi temples and a group of captive rhesus macaques in the Central Zoo, Kathmandu. Fecal samples were collected from the macaques between October 2021 to September 2022 and assessed for parasites by the both wet mount method and concentration technique. There is high prevalence of GI parasite infection; out of 121 fecal samples examined, 87.6% of samples were positive. Six species of protozoans and eight species of helminths were identified from the fecal samples including the first report of Iodamoeba butschlii in monkeys of Nepal. Among the protozoan parasites, Entamoeba coli (54.71%) showed the highest prevalence followed by Balantioides coli (44.33%), E. histolytica (19.81%), and Iodamoeba butschlii (10%). Among the helminths, Trichuris spp. (31.13%) and Strongyloides spp. (31.13%) showed the highest prevalence followed by Hookworm (24.52%), and Strongyle spp. (23.58%). The likelihood ratio test suggested that the prevalence differed significantly with the seasons for Iodamoeba butschlii, Giardia spp., Strongyles spp., Hookworm, and Trichostrongylus spp. The prevalence of E. histolytica, E. coli, Iodamoeba. butschlii, Trichuris spp., Trichostrongylus spp., and Unknown spp.1 differed with sampling localities. The high prevalence of GI parasites found in the macaques living in the densely urbanized Kathmandu presents a potential threat to humans and warrants further study as well as increased education of the public and management of the human-macaque interface in the urban landscape of the Valley.

Prevalence of gastrointestinal helminth parasites in rhesus macaques and local residents in the central mid-hills of Nepal

Rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) are distributed across Nepal in close association with humans and with a high probability of sharing of soil-transmitted intestinal helminth parasites. This study was carried out to determine the prevalence, richness and risk factors of gastrointestinal (GI) helminth parasites among rhesus macaques and humans in the Daunne Forest area, a community managed forest in the central mid-hills of Nepal. A total of 190 fecal samples, including 120 samples from rhesus macaques residing around the Daunne Devi Temple and in the surrounding forest, and 70 from local people, were microscopically examined by direct wet mount, floatation and sedimentation methods. Seasonal and age-sex based variations in helminth parasite prevalence were analyzed. Among the rhesus macaques, the total parasite prevalence was 39.2 %. Strongyloides sp. accounted for the highest prevalence (19.17 %) followed by Ascaris sp. (13.33 %), hookworm (10.83 %) and Trichuris sp. (4.17 %). Among the humans, Ascaris lumbricoides (11.3 %) was the only parasite detected. The Sorenson's coefficient of similarity of GI parasites between the macaques and local people at the generic level was 0.4. Mean parasite richness for the macaques was 1.21 ± 0.41 (SD) per infected sample. Parasite prevalence in the summer season (41.4 %) was higher than in the winter season (36 %). Adult macaques (41.67 %) had higher GI parasite prevalence than the young (30.77 %) and infants (27.27 %). Among the adult macaques, the prevalence rate was significantly higher (P=0.005) in females (52.46 %) than in males (22.86 %). Our results indicate that the temple rhesus macaques have a high prevalence of GI helminth parasites and could pose a potential zoonotic risk. As such, the need for routine monitoring and an effective management strategy is essential.

Molecular Characterization of Staphylococcus aureus Complex Isolated from Free-Ranging Long-Tailed Macaques at Kosumpee Forest Park, Maha Sarakham, Thailand

The Staphylococcus (S.) aureus complex, including methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) and methicillin-susceptible S. aureus (MSSA), and S. argenteus are bacterial pathogens that are responsible for both human and animal infection. However, insights into the molecular characteristics of MRSA, MSSA, and S. argenteus carriages in wildlife, especially in long-tailed macaques, rarely have been reported in Thailand. The objective of this study was to assess molecular characterization of MRSA, MSSA, and S. argenteus strains isolated from free-ranging long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) at Kosumpee Forest Park, Maha Sarakham, Thailand. A total of 21 secondary bacterial isolates (including 14 MRSA, 5 MSSA, and 2 S. argenteus) obtained from the buccal mucosa of 17 macaques were analysed by a Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to identify several virulence genes, including pvl, tst, hla, hlb clfA, spa (x-region), spa (IgG biding region), and coa. The most prevalent virulence genes were clfA, coa, and the spa IgG biding region which presented in all isolates. These data indicated that MRSA, MSSA, and S. argenteus isolates from the wild macaques at Kosumpee Forest Park possess a unique molecular profile, harbouring high numbers of virulence genes. These findings suggest that wild macaques may potentially serve as carriers for distribution of virulent staphylococcal bacteria in the study area.

Love or conflict: A qualitative study of the human-long tailed macaque interface in Nakhon Sawan Province, Thailand

A wide range of zoonotic pathogens can be transmitted during human-wildlife interactions. Few qualitative studies have been conducted on human-nonhuman primate interfaces in Thailand, notably direct and indirect contact. Since Long-tailed macaques (LTMs) are prevalent in Thailand's Banphot Phisai district, part of Nakhon Sawan province, this qualitative study was conducted in 2019 to determine in-depth contact characteristics between humans and LTMs in the communities. Key informant interviews (KIIs) and focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted with 35 villagers who reported close contact with LTMs in this study location. The results showed that villagers had different levels of contact with LTMs, depending on their occupations, perceptions, beliefs, religions, previous experiences, and local regulations. Monks in temples and vendors selling food for LTMs were reported to have the closest contact with them. LTMs have been reported to destroy personal property, houses, buildings, and crops. However, the villagers do not hurt them due to their religious beliefs relating to a respected abbot (a man who headed an abbey of monks). Even community members have had extensive interaction with LTMs, but they lacked awareness and information regarding diseases transmitted to humans directly or indirectly by non-human primates. Therefore, individuals who have frequent and close contact with LTMs should be provided health education, and appropriate behavioral change communication interventions should be performed. Furthermore, the results could be used to develop future disease prevention strategies and public awareness campaigns in the area.

Measurement in the study of human exposure to animal feces: A systematic review and audit

BACKGROUND

Human exposure to animal feces is increasingly recognized as an important transmission route of enteric pathogens. Yet, there are no consistent or standardized approaches to measurement of this exposure, limiting assessment of the human health effects and scope of the issue.

OBJECTIVE

To inform and improve approaches to the measurement of human exposure to animal feces, we audited existing measurement in low- and middle-income countries.

METHODS

We systematically searched peer-reviewed and gray literature databases for studies with quantitative measures of human exposure to animal feces and we classified measures in two ways. First, using a novel conceptual model, we categorized measures into three 'Exposure Components' identified a priori (i.e., Animal, Environmental, Human Behavioral); one additional Component (Evidence of Exposure) inductively emerged. Second, using the exposure science conceptual framework, we determined where measures fell along the source-to-outcome continuum.

RESULTS

We identified 1,428 measures across 184 included studies. Although studies overwhelmingly included more than one single-item measure, the majority only captured one Exposure Component. For example, many studies used several single-item measures to capture the same attribute for different animals, all of which were classified as the same Component. Most measures captured information about the source (e.g. animal presence) and contaminant (e.g. animal-sourced pathogens), which are most distal from exposure on the source-to-outcome continuum.

DISCUSSION

We found that measurement of human exposure to animal feces is diverse and largely distal from exposure. To facilitate better assessment of the human health effects of exposure and scope of the issue, rigorous and consistent measures are needed. We recommend a list of key factors from the Animal, Environmental, and Human Behavioral Exposure Components to measure. We also propose using the exposure science conceptual framework to identify proximal measurement approaches.

Leptospira Seroprevalence in Free-Ranging Long-Tailed Macaques (Macaca fascicularis) at Kosumpee Forest Park, Maha Sarakham, Thailand

BACKGROUND

Leptospirosis is a zoonotic disease that is ubiquitously distributed and is classified as a re-emerging infectious disease in humans and animals. Many serovars are carried by wildlife; all of them are capable of causing illness in humans. The purpose of this study was to investigate the prevalence of Leptospirosis in wild long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) at Kosumpee Forest Park, Mahasarakham, Thailand.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted at the park. Blood samples were collected via saphenous vein from 30 free-ranging long-tailed macaques. All samples were tested by the microscopic agglutination test. The LipL32 gene was used to detect pathogenic Leptospira in blood samples by conventional polymerase chain reaction.

RESULTS

Screening of the 30 wild macaques showed an overall Leptospira seroreactivity of 13.33%. Three of 30 macaques reacted against Leptospira serovar Shermani and one macaque was infected with Leptospira serovar Sejroe. None of the macaques presented clinical signs of leptospirosis. None of the blood samples showed the detection of the LipL32 gene.

CONCLUSIONS

The results indicate that the long-tailed macaques at Kosumpee Forest Park may act as natural reservoirs for Leptospirosis. Further, the results provide evidence-based information indicating that several pathogenic Leptospira serovars are circulating in the wild macaques in the study area.

Investigation of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus, and Staphylococcus argenteus from wild long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) at Kosumpee Forest Park, Maha Sarakham, Thailand

Background and Aim

In the past, the prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections in both humans and animals has increased across Thailand. Staphylococcus argenteus has been associated with infections among humans, exotic pets, and livestock. Both species have been identified in non-human primate species from geographically diverse locations but not from non-human primates in Thailand. This study aimed to determine the presence of MRSA/methicillin-susceptible S. aureus (MSSA) and S. argenteus isolates collected from buccal swab samples in Macaca fascicularis at Kosumpee Forest Park (KFP), Maha Sarakham, Northeast Thailand.

Materials and Methods

Aseptic buccal swab samples were collected from 30 free-ranging macaques in November 2018. All isolates were tested using multiple biochemical tests and S. aureus latex slide agglutination test. Presumptive S. aureus isolates were tested for the presence of the mecA gene using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays. The isolates were phenotypically determined to be resistant to a β-lactam antibiotic using the disk diffusion method with a 30 mg cefoxitin disk. The isolates were analyzed by PCR for the non-ribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) gene to distinguish S. argenteus from S. aureus.

Results

Fifteen macaques (50%) were colonized with S. aureus and 21 isolates were characterized. Three of the macaques carried both the MRSA and MSSA isolate. One animal carried both MRSA and S. argenteus isolate, and one animal carried only S. argenteus. The NRPS gene analysis confirmed that 2 isolates (9.52%) were S. argenteus and 19 isolates (90.48%) were S. aureus [five MSSA and 14 MRSA].

Conclusion

This study is the first to identify MRSA/MSSA and S. argenteus in wild free-ranging M. fascicularis from Thailand at the KFP in Maha Sarakham. This study is also the first report on the occurrence of S. argenteus carriage in M. fascicularis from Thailand.

One Health Approach of Melioidosis and Gastrointestinal Parasitic Infections from Macaca fascicularis to Human at Kosumpee Forest Park, Maha Sarakham, Thailand

Background and Objectives

Gastrointestinal parasitic and melioidosis infections are major causes of morbidity and mortality from infectious disease in rural areas, especially in northeastern Thailand. Both diseases are zoonotic giving rise to health problems in both long-tailed macaques and in humans. In Thailand, macaques have adapted to live and share space with humans and can spread some zoonoses to humans. Therefore, this research aimed to measure the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasitic infections and melioidosis in long-tailed macaques at Kosumpee Forest Park and measure associated risk factors of their diseases among people in this area.

Methods

This study was conducted at Kosumpee Forest Park, Maha Sarakham, Thailand. Twenty-eight blood samples and 135 fecal samples were collected from free-ranging long-tailed macaques. Blood samples were tested by indirect hemagglutination test and fecal samples were analyzed by formalin–ethyl acetate concentration technique. A cross-sectional study was conducted among 350 respondents who were involved with the Forest Park using a multi-stage stratified random sampling method and performed to measure knowledge, attitude, and practice toward the zoonoses among the respondents.

Results

It was found that seroprevalence of melioidosis was 57.1% from macaque samples. The prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites infection was 35.11% from fecces samples, including Strongyloides spp. (15.27%), Trichuris spp. (22.9%), hookworm (4.58%) and Ascarid spp. (1.53%). KAP study indicated that the level of knowledge related to melioidosis and gastrointestinal parasites of people in the area was very low and moderate, respectively. The attitude of respondents who were aware of the diseases was at a moderate level for melioidosis and a high level for parasitic infection.

Conclusion

The study therefore emphasizes the importance of one health approach for diagnosis, surveillance and management of zoonotic diseases to promote the development of hygiene measures and to educate people in the community around Kosumpee Forest Park.

Molecular identification of Trichuris trichiura and Hymenolepis diminuta in long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in Lopburi, Thailand

Background and Aim:

Trichuris trichiura and Hymenolepis diminuta are helminthic intestinal parasites that infect humans and other animals, including non-human primates. However, molecular detection of these parasites remains scarce in long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis), which coexist with human communities in Thailand. Thus, this study aimed to molecularly confirm the occurrence of Trichuris spp. and Hymenolepis spp. infection and determine the species of both parasites that were found in long-tailed macaques.

Materials and Methods:

A total of 200 fecal samples were randomly collected from long-tailed macaques living in Lopburi, Thailand, and tested based on polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays for Trichuris spp. and Hymenolepis spp. infections. The PCR products were submitted for DNA purification and sequencing. Phylogenetic analysis was performed using the maximum likelihood method.

Results:

Of 200 tested samples, three (1.5%) were positive for Trichuris spp. Sequence analysis of all positive samples revealed the presence of T. trichiura, while eight samples (8/200, 4%) positive for Hymenolepis spp. were classified as H. diminuta. No significant associations were found between parasite infection and sex of macaques.

Conclusion:

This study revealed that long-tailed macaques harbor T. trichiura and H. diminuta. These results suggested that local residents and tourists must pay attention to limiting contact with long-tailed macaques and take hygienic precautions to reduce the risk of zoonotic and anthroponotic transmission of these parasites between humans and long-tailed macaques.

Effect of urban habitat use on parasitism in mammals: a meta-analysis

Rates of urbanization are increasing globally, with consequences for the dynamics of parasites and their wildlife hosts. A small subset of mammal species have the dietary and behavioural flexibility to survive in urban settings. The changes that characterize urban ecology—including landscape transformation, modified diets and shifts in community composition—can either increase or decrease susceptibility and exposure to parasites. We used a meta-analytic approach to systematically assess differences in endoparasitism between mammals in urban and non-urban habitats. Parasite prevalence estimates in matched urban and non-urban mammal populations from 33 species were compiled from 46 published studies, and an overall effect of urban habitation on parasitism was derived after controlling for study and parasite genus. Parasite life cycle type and host order were investigated as moderators of the effect sizes. We found that parasites with complex life cycles were less prevalent in urban carnivore and primate populations than in non-urban populations. However, we found no difference in urban and non-urban prevalence for parasites in rodent and marsupial hosts, or differences in prevalence for parasites with simple life cycles in any host taxa. Our findings therefore suggest the disruption of some parasite transmission cycles in the urban ecological community.

Fecal microbiota dysbiosis in macaques and humans within a shared environment

Traditional zoonotic disease research focuses on detection of recognized pathogens and may miss opportunities to understand broader microbial transmission dynamics between humans, animals, and the environment. We studied human-macaque microbiome overlap in Kosum Phisai District, Maha Sarakham Province, Thailand, where a growing population of long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in Kosumpee Forest Park interact with humans from an adjacent village. We surveyed workers in or near the park with elevated exposure to macaques to characterize tasks resulting in exposure to macaque feces in addition to dietary and lifestyle factors that influence gut microbiome composition. Fecal samples were collected from 12 exposed workers and 6 controls without macaque exposure, as well as 8 macaques from Kosumpee Forest Park and 4 from an isolated forest patch with minimal human contact. The V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene from fecal sample extracted DNA was amplified and sequenced using Illumina MiSeq to characterize the microbial community. A permuted betadisper test on the weighted UniFrac distances revealed significant differences in the dispersion patterns of gut microbiota from exposed and control macaques (p = 0.03). The high variance in gut microbiota composition of macaques in contact with humans has potential implications for gut microbiome stability and susceptibility to disease, described by the Anna Karenina principle (AKP). Human samples had homogenous variance in beta diversity but different spatial medians between groups (p = 0.02), indicating a shift in microbial composition that may be explained by fundamental lifestyle differences between the groups unrelated to exposure status. SourceTracker was used to estimate the percent of gut taxa in exposed humans that was contributed by macaques. While one worker showed evidence of elevated contribution, the overall trend was not significant. Task observations among workers revealed opportunities to employ protective measures or training to reduce exposure to occupational hazards. These results suggest the potential for hygiene measures to mitigate negative aspects of contact between humans and macaques in order to optimize the health of both populations.