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Noruzi M, Behmadi H, Sabzevari O, Foroumadi A, Ghahremani MH, Pourahmad J, Hassani S, Baeeri M, Gholami M, Ghahremanian A, Seyfi S, Taghizadeh G, Sharifzadeh M. Liraglutide alleviated alpha-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (α-PVP) induced cognitive deficits in rats by modifying brain mitochondrial impairment. Eur J Pharmacol 2024; 978:176776. [PMID: 38936451 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2024.176776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2024] [Revised: 06/24/2024] [Accepted: 06/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024]
Abstract
The use of NPS compounds is increasing, and impairment in spatial learning and memory is a growing concern. Alpha-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (α-PVP) consumption, as a commonly used NPS, can impair spatial learning and memory via the brain mitochondrial dysfunction mechanism. Liraglutide isone of the most well-known Glucagon-Like Peptide 1 (GLP-1) agonists that is used as an anti-diabetic and anti-obesity drug. According to current research, Liraglutide likely ameliorates cognitive impairment in neurodegenerative conditions and substance use disorders. Hence, the purpose of this study is examining the effect of Liraglutide on α-PVP-induced spatial learning and memory problems due to brain mitochondrial dysfunction. Wistar rats (8 in each group) received α-PVP (20 mg/kg/d for 10 consecutive days, intraperitoneally (I.P.)). Then, Liraglutide was administered at 47 and 94 μg/kg/d, I.P., for 4 weeks following the α-PVP administration. The Morris Water Maze (MWM) task evaluated spatial learning and memory 24 h after Liraglutide treatment. Bedside, brain mitochondrial activity parameters, including reactive oxygen species (ROS) level, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), cytochrome c release, mitochondrial outer membrane damage and swelling, and brain ADP/ATP ratio, were studied. Our results showed that Liraglutide ameliorated α-PVP-induced spatial learning and memory impairments through alleviating brain mitochondrial dysfunction (which is indicated by increasing ROS formation, collapsed MMP, mitochondrial outer membrane damage, cytochrome c release, mitochondrial swelling, and increased brain ADP/ATP ratio). This study could be used as a starting point for future studies about the possible role of Liraglutide in ameliorating mitochondrial dysfunction leading to substance use disorder- induced cognitive impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marzieh Noruzi
- School of Pharmacy, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Homayoon Behmadi
- Department of Toxicology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Omid Sabzevari
- Department of Toxicology & Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, and Toxicology & Poisoning Research Centre, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Alireza Foroumadi
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Hossein Ghahremani
- Department of Toxicology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Jalal Pourahmad
- Department of Toxicology and Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Shokoufeh Hassani
- Toxicology and Diseases Group (TDG), Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center (PSRC), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Maryam Baeeri
- Toxicology and Diseases Group (TDG), Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center (PSRC), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mahdi Gholami
- Department of Toxicology & Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, and Toxicology & Poisoning Research Centre, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Amirhosein Ghahremanian
- Department of Toxicology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, and Drug and Poision Information Centre, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Soheila Seyfi
- Drug Design and Development Research Center, The Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences (TIPS), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ghorban Taghizadeh
- Rehabilitation Research Center, Department of Occupational Therapy, School of Rehabilitation Sciences, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Mohammad Sharifzadeh
- Department of Toxicology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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Sakai Y, Taguchi M, Morikawa Y, Suenami K, Yanase E, Takayama T, Ikari A, Matsunaga T. Lowering of brain endothelial cell barrier function by exposure to 4'-iodo-α-pyrrolidinononanophenone. Chem Biol Interact 2022; 364:110052. [PMID: 35872046 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2022.110052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2022] [Revised: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Overuse of pyrrolidinophenones (PPs) is known to cause damage to vascular and central nervous systems, but little is known about its effect on brain endothelial barrier function. In this study, we found that exposure to 4'-iodo-α-pyrrolidinononanophenone (I-α-PNP), one of the most potently cytotoxic PPs, at sublethal concentrations decreases trans-endothelial electrical resistance and increases paracellular permeability across a monolayer of human brain microvascular endothelial cells. Treatment with I-α-PNP also elevated the production of superoxide anion. Furthermore, the treatment reduced the expression and plasma membrane localization of a tight junction protein claudin-5 (CLDN5), which was almost restored by pretreatment with an antioxidant N-acetyl-l-cysteine. These results indicate that I-α-PNP treatment may down-regulate the plasma membrane-localized CLDN5 by elevating the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The treatment with I-α-PNP increased the nuclear translocation of Forkhead box protein O1 (FoxO1), an oxidative stress-responsive transcription factor, and pretreating with a FoxO1 inhibitor ameliorated the decrease in CLDN5 mRNA. In addition, I-α-PNP treatment up-regulated the expression and secretion of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP2) and MMP9, and the addition of an MMP inhibitor reversed the degradation of CLDN5 by I-α-PNP. Moreover, I-α-PNP treatment facilitated the activation of 26S proteasome-based proteolytic activity and pretreatment with an inhibitor of 26S proteasome, but not autophagy, suppressed the CLDN5 degradation by I-α-PNP. Accordingly, it is suggested that the down-regulation of CLDN5 by exposure to I-α-PNP is ascribable to suppression of the gene transcription due to FoxO1 nuclear translocation through ROS production and to acceleration both of the MMPs (MMP2 and MMP9)- and 26S proteasome-based proteolysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuji Sakai
- Forensic Science Laboratory, Gifu Prefectural Police Headquarters, Gifu, 500-8501, Japan.
| | - Maki Taguchi
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Gifu Pharmaceutical University, Gifu, 501-1196, Japan
| | - Yoshifumi Morikawa
- Forensic Science Laboratory, Gifu Prefectural Police Headquarters, Gifu, 500-8501, Japan
| | - Koichi Suenami
- Forensic Science Laboratory, Gifu Prefectural Police Headquarters, Gifu, 500-8501, Japan
| | - Emiko Yanase
- Faculty of Applied Biological Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu, 501-1112, Japan
| | - Tomohiro Takayama
- Forensic Science Laboratory, Gifu Prefectural Police Headquarters, Gifu, 500-8501, Japan
| | - Akira Ikari
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Gifu Pharmaceutical University, Gifu, 501-1196, Japan
| | - Toshiyuki Matsunaga
- Laboratory of Bioinformatics, Gifu Pharmaceutical University, Gifu, 502-8585, Japan
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Soares J, Costa VM, Bastos MDL, Carvalho F, Capela JP. An updated review on synthetic cathinones. Arch Toxicol 2021; 95:2895-2940. [PMID: 34100120 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-021-03083-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Cathinone, the main psychoactive compound found in the plant Catha edulis Forsk. (khat), is a β-keto analogue of amphetamine, sharing not only the phenethylamine structure, but also the amphetamine-like stimulant effects. Synthetic cathinones are derivatives of the naturally occurring cathinone that largely entered the recreational drug market at the end of 2000s. The former "legal status", impressive marketing strategies and their commercial availability, either in the so-called "smartshops" or via the Internet, prompted their large spread, contributing to their increasing popularity in the following years. As their popularity increased, the risks posed for public health became clear, with several reports of intoxications and deaths involving these substances appearing both in the social media and scientific literature. The regulatory measures introduced thereafter to halt these trending drugs of abuse have proved to be of low impact, as a continuous emergence of new non-controlled derivatives keep appearing to replace those prohibited. Users resort to synthetic cathinones due to their psychostimulant properties but are often unaware of the dangers they may incur when using these substances. Therefore, studies aimed at unveiling the pharmacological and toxicological properties of these substances are imperative, as they will provide increased expertise to the clinicians that face this problem on a daily basis. The present work provides a comprehensive review on history and legal status, chemistry, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, adverse effects and lethality in humans, as well as on the current knowledge of the neurotoxic mechanisms of synthetic cathinones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Soares
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
| | - Vera Marisa Costa
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Maria de Lourdes Bastos
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Félix Carvalho
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - João Paulo Capela
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
- FP-ENAS (Fernando Pessoa Energy, Environment and Health Research Unit), CEBIMED (Biomedical Research Centre), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Fernando Pessoa, Porto, Portugal.
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MDPV "high-responder" rats also self-administer more oxycodone than their "low-responder" counterparts under a fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2021; 238:1183-1192. [PMID: 33484299 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-021-05764-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 01/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Oxycodone is one of the most commonly prescribed and most frequently abused opioid analgesics, yet little is known regarding individual vulnerabilities to oxycodone abuse. The synthetic cathinone 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) has been shown to produce a "high-responder" phenotype characterized by increased drug intake and responding during periods of signaled drug unavailability (e.g., during post-infusion timeouts) in ~ 40% of male Sprague-Dawley rats. This phenotype also transfers to other psychostimulants (e.g., cocaine and methamphetamine), but it is unknown whether this phenotype transfers to other (non-stimulant) drugs of abuse. OBJECTIVES The present study aimed to (1) reestablish the "high-responder" phenotype in male Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 11) that acquired self-administration of MDPV (0.032 mg/kg/inf) on a fixed ratio 1 (FR1) schedule of reinforcement and (2) compare full dose-response curves for MDPV and oxycodone self-administration under an FR5 schedule of reinforcement. RESULTS MDPV was ~ 3-fold more potent at maintaining peak levels of behavior and resulted in greater overall drug intake than oxycodone. High levels of timeout responding were noted in a subset of rats that acquired MDPV self-administration ("high-responders", n = 5), and the FR5 dose-response curve for MDPV was shifted upward for these rats relative to their "low-responder" (n = 6) counterparts. "High-responders" also self-administered more infusions of oxycodone under an FR5 schedule of reinforcement than "low-responders"; however, this was not coupled with increased levels of timeout responding. CONCLUSIONS The present data suggest that a subset of individuals with a history of using synthetic cathinones may be particularly vulnerable to the abuse of oxycodone.
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In vivo toxicometabolomics reveals multi-organ and urine metabolic changes in mice upon acute exposure to human-relevant doses of 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV). Arch Toxicol 2020; 95:509-527. [PMID: 33215236 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-020-02949-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
3,4-Methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) is consumed worldwide, despite its potential to cause toxicity in several organs and even death. There is a recognized need to clarify the biological pathways through which MDPV elicits general and target-organ toxicity. In this work, a comprehensive untargeted GC-MS-based metabolomics analysis was performed, aiming to detect metabolic changes in putative target organs (brain, heart, kidneys and liver) but also in urine of mice after acute exposure to human-relevant doses of MDPV. Male CD-1 mice received binge intraperitoneal administrations of saline or MDPV (2.5 mg/kg or 5 mg/kg) every 2 h, for a total of three injections. Twenty-four hours after the first administration, target organs, urine and blood samples were collected for metabolomics, biochemical and histological analysis. Hepatic and renal tissues of MDPV-treated mice showed moderate histopathological changes but no significant differences were found in plasma and tissue biochemical markers of organ injury. In contrast, the multivariate analysis significantly discriminated the organs and urine of MDPV-treated mice from the control (except for the lowest dose in the brain), allowing the identification of a panoply of metabolites. Those levels were significantly deviated in relation to physiological conditions and showed an organ specific response towards the drug. Kidneys and liver showed the greatest metabolic changes. Metabolites related with energetic metabolism, antioxidant defenses and inflammatory response were significantly changed in the liver of MDPV-dosed animals, while the kidneys seem to have developed an adaptive response against oxidative stress caused by MDPV. On the other hand, the dysregulation of metabolites that contribute to metabolic acidosis was also observed in this organ. The heart showed an increase of fatty acid biosynthesis, possibly as an adaptation to maintain the cardiac energy homeostasis. In the brain, changes in 3-hydroxybutyric acid levels may reflect the activation of a neurotoxic pathway. However, the increase in metabolites with neuroprotective properties seems to counteract this change. Metabolic profiling of urine from MDPV-treated mice suggested that glutathione-dependent antioxidant pathways may be particularly involved in the compensatory mechanism to counteract oxidative stress induced by MDPV. Overall, this study reports, for the first time, the metabolic profile of liver, kidneys, heart, brain, and urine of MDPV-dosed mice, providing unique insights into the biological pathways of toxicity. Our findings also underline the value of toxicometabolomics as a robust and sensitive tool for detecting adaptive/toxic cellular responses upon exposure to a physiologically relevant dose of a toxic agent, earlier than conventional toxicity tests.
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Leong HS, Philp M, Simone M, Witting PK, Fu S. Synthetic Cathinones Induce Cell Death in Dopaminergic SH-SY5Y Cells via Stimulating Mitochondrial Dysfunction. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21041370. [PMID: 32085614 PMCID: PMC7073199 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21041370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2019] [Revised: 02/13/2020] [Accepted: 02/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Increasing reports of neurological and psychiatric complications due to psychostimulant synthetic cathinones (SCs) have recently raised public concern. However, the precise mechanism of SC toxicity is unclear. This paucity of understanding highlights the need to investigate the in-vitro toxicity and mechanistic pathways of three SCs: butylone, pentylone, and 3,4-Methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV). Human neuronal cells of SH-SY5Y were cultured in supplemented DMEM/F12 media and differentiated to a neuronal phenotype using retinoic acid (10 μM) and 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (81 nM). Trypan blue and lactate dehydrogenase assays were utilized to assess the neurotoxicity potential and potency of these three SCs. To investigate the underlying neurotoxicity mechanisms, measurements included markers of oxidative stress, mitochondrial bioenergetics, and intracellular calcium (Ca2+), and cell death pathways were evaluated at two doses (EC15 and EC40), for each drug tested. Following 24 h of treatment, all three SCs exhibited a dose-dependent neurotoxicity, characterized by a significant (p < 0.0001 vs. control) production of reactive oxygen species, decreased mitochondrial bioenergetics, and increased intracellular Ca2+ concentrations. The activation of caspases 3 and 7 implicated the orchestration of mitochondrial-mediated neurotoxicity mechanisms for these SCs. Identifying novel therapeutic agents to enhance an altered mitochondrial function may help in the treatment of acute-neurological complications arising from the illicit use of these SCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huey Sze Leong
- Centre for Forensic Science, School of Mathematical and Physical Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia; (H.S.L.); (M.P.)
- Discipline of Pathology, Charles Perkins Centre, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2006, Australia;
| | - Morgan Philp
- Centre for Forensic Science, School of Mathematical and Physical Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia; (H.S.L.); (M.P.)
| | - Martin Simone
- Discipline of Pathology, Charles Perkins Centre, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2006, Australia;
| | - Paul Kenneth Witting
- Discipline of Pathology, Charles Perkins Centre, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2006, Australia;
- Correspondence: (P.K.W.); (S.F.); Tel.: +61-2-9114-0524 (P.K.W.); +61-2-9514-8207 (S.F.)
| | - Shanlin Fu
- Centre for Forensic Science, School of Mathematical and Physical Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia; (H.S.L.); (M.P.)
- Correspondence: (P.K.W.); (S.F.); Tel.: +61-2-9114-0524 (P.K.W.); +61-2-9514-8207 (S.F.)
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Souders CL, Davis RH, Qing H, Liang X, Febo M, Martyniuk CJ. The psychoactive cathinone derivative pyrovalerone alters locomotor activity and decreases dopamine receptor expression in zebrafish (Danio rerio). Brain Behav 2019; 9:e01420. [PMID: 31625691 PMCID: PMC6851804 DOI: 10.1002/brb3.1420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2019] [Revised: 07/27/2019] [Accepted: 09/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Pyrovalerone (4-methyl-β-keto-prolintane) is a synthetic cathinone (beta-keto-amphetamine) derivative. Cathinones are a concern as drugs of abuse, as related street drugs such as methylenedioxypyrovalerone have garnered significant attention. The primary mechanism of action of cathinones is to inhibit reuptake transporters (dopamine and norepinephrine) in reward centers of the central nervous system. METHODS We measured bioenergetic, behavioral, and molecular responses to pyrovalerone (nM-µM) in zebrafish to evaluate its potential for neurotoxicity and neurological impairment. RESULTS Pyrovalerone did not induce any mortality in zebrafish larvae over a 3- and 24-hr period; however, seizures were prevalent at the highest dose tested (100 µM). Oxidative phosphorylation was not affected in the embryos, and there was no change in superoxide dismutase 1 expression. Following a 3-hr treatment to pyrovalerone (1-100 µM), larval zebrafish (6d) showed a dose-dependent decrease (70%-90%) in total distance moved in a visual motor response (VMR) test. We interrogated potential mechanisms related to the hypoactivity, focusing on the expression of dopamine-related transcripts as cathinones can modulate the dopamine system. Pyrovalerone decreased the expression levels of dopamine receptor D1 (~60%) in larval zebrafish but did not affect the expression of tyrosine hydroxylase, dopamine active transporter, or any other dopamine receptor subunit examined, suggesting that pyrovalerone may regulate the expression of dopamine receptors in a specific manner. DISCUSSION Further studies using zebrafish are expected to reveal new insight into molecular mechanisms and behavioral responses to cathinone derivates, and zebrafish may be a useful model for understanding the relationship between the dopamine system and bath salts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Laurence Souders
- Department of Physiological Sciences and Center for Environmental and Human Toxicology, University of Florida Genetics Institute, Interdisciplinary Program in Biomedical Sciences Neuroscience, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Robert H Davis
- Department of Physiological Sciences and Center for Environmental and Human Toxicology, University of Florida Genetics Institute, Interdisciplinary Program in Biomedical Sciences Neuroscience, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Hua Qing
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control & Waste Resource Reuse, School of Ecology and Environment, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, China
| | - Xuefang Liang
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control & Waste Resource Reuse, School of Ecology and Environment, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, China
| | - Marcelo Febo
- Department of Psychiatry, Evelyn F. and William L. McKnight Brain Institute, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Christopher J Martyniuk
- Department of Physiological Sciences and Center for Environmental and Human Toxicology, University of Florida Genetics Institute, Interdisciplinary Program in Biomedical Sciences Neuroscience, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
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Simmons SJ, Leyrer-Jackson JM, Oliver CF, Hicks C, Muschamp JW, Rawls SM, Olive MF. DARK Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: Cathinone-Derived Psychostimulants. ACS Chem Neurosci 2018; 9:2379-2394. [PMID: 29714473 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Cathinone is a plant alkaloid found in khat leaves of perennial shrubs grown in East Africa. Similar to cocaine, cathinone elicits psychostimulant effects which are in part attributed to its amphetamine-like structure. Around 2010, home laboratories began altering the parent structure of cathinone to synthesize derivatives with mechanisms of action, potencies, and pharmacokinetics permitting high abuse potential and toxicity. These "synthetic cathinones" include 4-methylmethcathinone (mephedrone), 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), and the empathogenic agent 3,4-methylenedioxymethcathinone (methylone) which collectively gained international popularity following aggressive online marketing as well as availability in various retail outlets. Case reports made clear the health risks associated with these agents and, in 2012, the Drug Enforcement Agency of the United States placed a series of synthetic cathinones on Schedule I under emergency order. Mechanistically, cathinone and synthetic derivatives work by augmenting monoamine transmission through release facilitation and/or presynaptic transport inhibition. Animal studies confirm the rewarding and reinforcing properties of synthetic cathinones by utilizing self-administration, place conditioning, and intracranial self-stimulation assays and additionally show persistent neuropathological features which demonstrate a clear need to better understand this class of drugs. This Review will thus detail (i) historical context of cathinone use and the rise of "dark" synthetic derivatives, (ii) structural features and mechanisms of synthetic cathinones, (iii) behavioral effects observed clinically and in animals under controlled laboratory conditions, and (iv) neurotransmitters and circuits that may be targeted to manage synthetic cathinone abuse in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven J. Simmons
- Center for Substance Abuse Research (CSAR), Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19140, United States
| | | | - Chicora F. Oliver
- Center for Substance Abuse Research (CSAR), Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19140, United States
| | - Callum Hicks
- Center for Substance Abuse Research (CSAR), Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19140, United States
| | - John W. Muschamp
- Center for Substance Abuse Research (CSAR), Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19140, United States
| | - Scott M. Rawls
- Center for Substance Abuse Research (CSAR), Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19140, United States
| | - M. Foster Olive
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85281, United States
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Coccini T, Vecchio S, Crevani M, De Simone U. Cytotoxic Effects of 3,4-Catechol-PV (One Major MDPV Metabolite) on Human Dopaminergic SH-SY5Y Cells. Neurotox Res 2018; 35:49-62. [DOI: 10.1007/s12640-018-9924-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2018] [Revised: 06/01/2018] [Accepted: 06/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Lantz SM, Rosas-Hernandez H, Cuevas E, Robinson B, Rice KC, Fantegrossi WE, Imam SZ, Paule MG, Ali SF. Monoaminergic toxicity induced by cathinone phthalimide: An in vitro study. Neurosci Lett 2017; 655:76-81. [PMID: 28684237 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2017.06.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2017] [Revised: 06/21/2017] [Accepted: 06/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Bath salts, or synthetic cathinones, have cocaine-like or amphetamine-like properties and induce psychoactive effects via their capacity to modulate serotonin (5-HT) and dopamine (DA). Structurally distinct synthetic cathinones are continuously being generated to skirt existing drug laws. One example of these modified compounds is cathinone phthalimide (CP), which has already appeared on the global market. The lack of toxicological studies on the effects of CP on monoaminergic systems led to the development of the present study in order to generate an acute toxicity profile for CP, and to clarify whether it primarily affects both dopamine and serotonin, like the synthetic cathinones mephedrone and methylone, or primarily affects dopamine, like 3, 4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV). For the first time, the toxicity profile of CP (10μM-1000μM) is reported. In pheochromocytoma cells, exposure to CP induced cell death, and altered mitochondrial function, as well as intracellular DA and 5-HT levels; at the same time, reduced glutathione (GSH) levels remained unaffected. This seems to indicate that CP functions like mephedrone or methylone. The role of CP metabolites, the effect of CP induced hyperthermia on neurotoxicity, and its ability to traverse the blood-brain barrier warrant further consideration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan M Lantz
- Neurochemistry Laboratory, Division of Neurotoxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research/FDA, 3900 NCTR Rd, HFT-132, Jefferson, AR, 72079, United States.
| | - Hector Rosas-Hernandez
- Neurochemistry Laboratory, Division of Neurotoxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research/FDA, 3900 NCTR Rd, HFT-132, Jefferson, AR, 72079, United States.
| | - Elvis Cuevas
- Neurochemistry Laboratory, Division of Neurotoxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research/FDA, 3900 NCTR Rd, HFT-132, Jefferson, AR, 72079, United States.
| | - Bonnie Robinson
- Neurochemistry Laboratory, Division of Neurotoxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research/FDA, 3900 NCTR Rd, HFT-132, Jefferson, AR, 72079, United States.
| | - Kenner C Rice
- Drug Design and Synthesis Section, Molecular Targets and Medications Discovery Branch, NIDA/NIAAA 9800 Medical Center Drive Rm 228A, MSC-3373, Bethesda, MD, 20892, United States.
| | - William E Fantegrossi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR 72205, United States.
| | - Syed Z Imam
- Neurochemistry Laboratory, Division of Neurotoxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research/FDA, 3900 NCTR Rd, HFT-132, Jefferson, AR, 72079, United States.
| | - Merle G Paule
- Neurochemistry Laboratory, Division of Neurotoxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research/FDA, 3900 NCTR Rd, HFT-132, Jefferson, AR, 72079, United States.
| | - Syed F Ali
- Neurochemistry Laboratory, Division of Neurotoxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research/FDA, 3900 NCTR Rd, HFT-132, Jefferson, AR, 72079, United States.
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Methylone and MDPV activate autophagy in human dopaminergic SH-SY5Y cells: a new insight into the context of β-keto amphetamines-related neurotoxicity. Arch Toxicol 2017; 91:3663-3676. [PMID: 28527032 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-017-1984-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2017] [Accepted: 05/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Autophagy has an essential role in neuronal homeostasis and its dysregulation has been recently linked to neurotoxic effects of a growing list of psychoactive drugs, including amphetamines. However, the role of autophagy in β-keto amphetamine (β-KA) designer drugs-induced neurotoxicity has hitherto not been investigated. In the present study, we show that two commonly abused cathinone derivatives, 3,4-methylenedioxymethcathinone (methylone) and 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), elicit morphological changes consistent with autophagy and neurodegeneration, including formation of autophagic vacuoles and neurite retraction in dopaminergic SH-SY5Y cells. Methylone and MDPV prompted the formation of acidic vesicular organelles (AVOs) and lead to increased expression of the autophagy-associated protein LC3-II in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. Electron microscopy confirmed the presence of autophagosomes with typical double membranes and autolysosomes in cells exposed to both β-KA. The autophagic flux was further confirmed using bafilomycin A1, a known inhibitor of the late phase of autophagy. Moreover, we showed that autophagy markers were activated before the triggering of cell death and caspase 3 activation, suggesting that β-KA-induced autophagy precedes apoptotic cell death. To address the role of oxidative stress in autophagy induction, we also investigated the effects of antioxidant treatment with N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) on autophagy and apoptotic markers altered by these drugs. NAC significantly attenuated methylone- and MDPV-induced cell death by completely inhibiting the generation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, and hampering both apoptotic and autophagic activity, suggesting that oxidative stress plays an important role in mediating autophagy and apoptosis elicited by these drugs.
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Valente MJ, Bastos MDL, Fernandes E, Carvalho F, Guedes de Pinho P, Carvalho M. Neurotoxicity of β-Keto Amphetamines: Deathly Mechanisms Elicited by Methylone and MDPV in Human Dopaminergic SH-SY5Y Cells. ACS Chem Neurosci 2017; 8:850-859. [PMID: 28067045 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.6b00421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Synthetic cathinones (β-keto amphetamines) act as potent CNS stimulants similarly to classical amphetamines, which raise concerns about their potential neurotoxic effects. The present in vitro study aimed to explore and compare the mechanisms underlying the neurotoxicity of two commonly abused cathinone derivatives, 3,4-methylenedioxymethcathinone (methylone) and 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), with those of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), using undifferentiated and differentiated SH-SY5Y cells. Following a 24 h exposure period, methylone and MDPV induced loss of cell viability in a concentration-dependent manner, in the following order of potency: MDPV ≈ MDMA > methylone. Dopaminergic differentiated cells evidenced higher sensitivity to the neurotoxic effects of both cathinones and MDMA than the undifferentiated ones, but this effect was not inhibited by the DAT inhibitor GBR 12909. Intracellular oxidative stress mediated by methylone and MDPV was demonstrated by the increase in reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS and RNS) production, depletion of intracellular reduced glutathione and increased oxidized glutathione levels. All three drugs elicited mitochondrial impairment, characterized by the mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm) dissipation and intracellular ATP depletion. Apoptosis was found to be a common mechanism of cell death induced by methylone and MDPV, with evident chromatin condensation and formation of pyknotic nuclei, and activation of caspases 3, 8, and 9. In conclusion, the present data shows that oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction play a role in cathinones-induced neuronal damage, ultimately leading to cell death by apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria João Valente
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE,
Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Maria de Lourdes Bastos
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE,
Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Eduarda Fernandes
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE,
Laboratory of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Félix Carvalho
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE,
Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Paula Guedes de Pinho
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE,
Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Márcia Carvalho
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE,
Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
- FP-ENAS,
CEBIMED, Fundação Ensino e Cultura Fernando Pessoa, 4249-004 Porto, Portugal
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