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Khan S, McWhorter AR, Moyle TS, Chousalkar KK. Refrigeration of eggs influences the virulence of Salmonella Typhimurium. Sci Rep 2021; 11:18026. [PMID: 34504138 PMCID: PMC8429434 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-97135-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Salmonella Typhimurium is a human pathogen associated with eggs and egg-derived products. In Australia, it is recommended that eggs should be refrigerated to prevent condensation that can enhance bacterial penetration across the eggshell. Except for the United States, the guidelines on egg refrigeration are not prescriptive. In the current study, in-vitro and in-vivo experiments were conducted to understand the role of egg storage temperatures (refrigerated vs ambient) on bacterial load and the virulence genes expression of Salmonella Typhimurium. The in-vitro egg study showed that the load of Salmonella Typhimurium significantly increased in yolk and albumen stored at 25 °C. The gene expression study showed that ompR, misL, pefA, spvA, shdA, bapA, and csgB were significantly up-regulated in the egg yolk stored at 5 °C and 25 °C for 96 h; however, an in-vivo study revealed that mice infected with egg yolk stored at 25 °C, developed salmonellosis from day 3 post-infection (p.i.). Mice fed with inoculated egg yolk, albumen, or eggshell wash stored at refrigerated temperature did not show signs of salmonellosis during the period of the experiment. Data obtained in this study highlighted the importance of egg refrigeration in terms of improving product safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samiullah Khan
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, SA, 5371, Australia
| | - Andrea R McWhorter
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, SA, 5371, Australia
| | - Talia S Moyle
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, SA, 5371, Australia
| | - Kapil K Chousalkar
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, SA, 5371, Australia.
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Food safety behavior and handling practices during purchase, preparation, storage and consumption of chicken meat and eggs. Food Res Int 2019; 125:108631. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2019.108631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2019] [Revised: 08/16/2019] [Accepted: 08/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Babu US, Proszkowiec-Weglarz M, Sharma GM, Pereira M, Balan KV. In vivo and in vitro evaluation of tissue colonization and survival capacity of Salmonella Oranienburg in laying hens. Poult Sci 2018; 97:3230-3235. [PMID: 29788466 DOI: 10.3382/ps/pey189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2018] [Accepted: 04/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Salmonella enterica serovar Oranienburg (SO) was linked to a human salmonellosis outbreak in the Midwest in 2015 and 2016 from consumption of eggs. However, unlike Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis (SE), little is known regarding the potential of SO to colonize in laying hens and contaminate eggs. We used in vivo and in vitro models to evaluate tissue colonization and survival capacity of SO. Twenty eight-week-old laying hens were each challenged with an oral dose of approximately 107 (n = 92) or 109 (n = 96) colony-forming units (CFU) in 1 mL saline and evaluated after 1, 2, and 4 wk. Standard microbiological methods with pre-enrichment and enrichment in selective media were used for detection of SO in tissues, egg shell wash, internal egg contents, and excreta. Peak colonization of spleen (86.9%), ovaries (31.6%), upper oviduct (15.8%), and lower oviduct (34.3%) was detected between 1 and 2 wk post-infection (pi), while at 4 wk SO was only recovered from spleens (25%). Salmonella enterica serovar Oranienburg was not recovered from internal egg contents. However, the presence of SO on egg shells was seen when there were traces of excreta. Shedding in excreta was found in 92 and 100% birds gavaged with 107 and 109 CFU at 2 wk pi, respectively. The invasion and proliferation of SO in ovarian granulosa cells (GC) was compared to that of SE, and while the invasion of SO into GC was comparable to SE, proliferation of SO was significantly lower (P < 0.05). The infective potential of SO was also assessed by enumerating survival in egg white over 4 wk under refrigerated conditions, resulting in 65% survival at 4 wk. Overall, our data suggested that SO infection in layers did not result in egg contamination via vertical transmission, and colonization of egg-forming tissues was limited to 2 wk pi. Survival within GC and egg white demonstrates the ability of SO to withstand antibacterial factors and the potential of SO to penetrate the yolk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uma S Babu
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Applied Research and Safety Assessment, Laurel, MD 20708, USA
| | - Monika Proszkowiec-Weglarz
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Applied Research and Safety Assessment, Laurel, MD 20708, USA
| | - Girdhari M Sharma
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Applied Research and Safety Assessment, Laurel, MD 20708, USA
| | - Marion Pereira
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Applied Research and Safety Assessment, Laurel, MD 20708, USA
| | - Kannan V Balan
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Applied Research and Safety Assessment, Laurel, MD 20708, USA
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Gast RK, Guard J, Guraya R, Locatelli A. Multiplication in Egg Yolk and Survival in Egg Albumen of Genetically and Phenotypically Characterized Salmonella Enteritidis Strains. J Food Prot 2018; 81:876-880. [PMID: 29714623 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-17-484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Prompt refrigeration of eggs to prevent the multiplication of Salmonella Enteritidis to high levels during storage is an important practice for reducing the risk of egg-transmitted human illness. The efficacy of egg refrigeration for achieving this goal depends on the interaction among the location of contamination, the ability of contaminant strains to survive or multiply, and the rate at which growth-restricting temperatures are attained. The present study assessed the significance of several characterized genetic and phenotypic properties for the capabilities of 10 Salmonella Enteritidis isolates to multiply rapidly in egg yolk and survive for several days in egg albumen during unrefrigerated (25°C) storage. The growth of small numbers of each Salmonella Enteritidis strain (approximately 101 CFU/mL) inoculated into egg yolk samples was determined after 6 and 24 h of incubation. The survival of larger numbers of Salmonella Enteritidis (approximately 105 CFU/mL) inoculated into albumen samples was determined at 24 and 96 h of incubation. In yolk, the inoculated Salmonella Enteritidis strains multiplied to mean levels of approximately 102.6 CFU/mL after 6 h of incubation and 108.3 CFU/mL after 24 h. In albumen, mean levels of approximately 104.6 CFU/mL Salmonella Enteritidis were maintained through 96 h. The concentrations of the various Salmonella strains after incubation in either yolk or albumen were distributed over relatively narrow ranges of values. Significant ( P < 0.01) differences observed among individual strains suggested that maintenance of the fimbrial gene sefD may have positive genetic selection value by improving fitness to grow inside egg yolk, whereas the antibiotic resistance gene blaTEM-1 tet(A) appeared to have negative genetic selection value by decreasing fitness to survive in egg albumen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard K Gast
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, 950 College Station Road, Athens, Georgia 30605, USA
| | - Jean Guard
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, 950 College Station Road, Athens, Georgia 30605, USA
| | - Rupa Guraya
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, 950 College Station Road, Athens, Georgia 30605, USA
| | - Aude Locatelli
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, 950 College Station Road, Athens, Georgia 30605, USA
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Draft Genome Sequence of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica Serovar Widemarsh Strain CRJJGF_00058 (Phylum Gammaproteobacteria). GENOME ANNOUNCEMENTS 2016; 4:4/4/e00604-16. [PMID: 27417830 PMCID: PMC4945790 DOI: 10.1128/genomea.00604-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Here, we report a 4.73 Mbp draft genome sequence of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Widemarsh strain CRJJGF_00058, isolated from eggs in 2008.
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Whiley A, Fallowfield H, Ross K, McEvoy V, Whiley H. Higher Storage Temperature Causes Greater Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhimurium Internal Penetration of Artificially Contaminated, Commercially Available, Washed Free Range Eggs. J Food Prot 2016; 79:1247-51. [PMID: 27357046 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-16-078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Foodborne salmonellosis is a major public health concern, with contaminated eggs identified as a significant source of infection. In Australia, the most prevalent cause of salmonellosis from eggs is Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhimurium. This study explored the effect of temperature after 1, 7, 14, 21, and 28 days of storage on commercially available washed free range eggs, artificially contaminated with Salmonella Typhimurium on the external surface. At each time point, the external surface of the egg, the crushed eggshell, and the internal egg yolk and albumen were analyzed for Salmonella. After 28 days of storage, 25% of eggs stored at 4°C, 50% of eggs stored at 14°C, and 100% of eggs stored at 23 and 35°C were internally contaminated with Salmonella. After 1 day of storage, more than 50% of all eggs had Salmonella present in the crushed shell after the external surface had been disinfected with ethanol. This is the first study to demonstrate that refrigeration reduced the potential for Salmonella Typhimurium to penetrate the eggshell membrane and internally contaminate table eggs commercially available in Australia. It also suggests that the processes of cracking eggs may be a source of cross-contamination within the kitchen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Whiley
- Health and the Environment, Flinders University, G.P.O. Box 2100, Adelaide, South Australia 5001, Australia
| | - Howard Fallowfield
- Health and the Environment, Flinders University, G.P.O. Box 2100, Adelaide, South Australia 5001, Australia
| | - Kirstin Ross
- Health and the Environment, Flinders University, G.P.O. Box 2100, Adelaide, South Australia 5001, Australia
| | - Vanessa McEvoy
- Public Health Services, Department for Health and Ageing, SA Health, Government of South Australia, P.O. Box 6, Rundle Mall, Adelaide, South Australia 5001, Australia
| | - Harriet Whiley
- Health and the Environment, Flinders University, G.P.O. Box 2100, Adelaide, South Australia 5001, Australia.
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Moraes DMC, Duarte SC, Bastos TSA, Rezende CLG, Leandro NSM, Café MB, Stringhini JH, Andrade MA. Detection of Salmonella spp. by Conventional Bacteriology and by Quantitative Polymerase-Chain Reaction in Commercial Egg Structures. BRAZILIAN JOURNAL OF POULTRY SCIENCE 2016. [DOI: 10.1590/18069061-2015-0063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - MB Café
- Universidade Federal de Goiás, Brazil
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Pasquali F, Klein G, Reich F, Manfreda G, Valero A. Modelling survival behaviour of Salmonella enterica ser. Enteritidis, Typhimurium and Tennessee on table eggs during storage at different temperatures. Food Control 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2015.05.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Park S, Choi S, Kim H, Kim Y, Kim BS, Beuchat LR, Ryu JH. Fate of mesophilic aerobic bacteria and Salmonella enterica on the surface of eggs as affected by chicken feces, storage temperature, and relative humidity. Food Microbiol 2015; 48:200-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2015.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2014] [Revised: 01/07/2015] [Accepted: 01/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Gast RK, Guraya R, Guard J. Salmonella enteritidis deposition in eggs after experimental infection of laying hens with different oral doses. J Food Prot 2013; 76:108-13. [PMID: 23317864 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-12-268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The continuing attribution of human Salmonella Enteritidis infections to internally contaminated eggs has necessitated the commitment of substantial public and private resources to Salmonella Enteritidis testing and control programs in commercial laying flocks. Cost-effective risk-reduction requires a detailed and comprehensive understanding of how Salmonella Enteritidis infections in hens result in deposition of the pathogen inside eggs. The present study sought to resolve some incompletely defined aspects of the relationship between Salmonella Enteritidis oral-exposure dose levels in experimentally infected laying hens and the frequency and location of subsequent egg contamination. In two trials, groups of specific-pathogen-free hens were experimentally inoculated with oral doses of 10(4), 10(6), or 10(8) CFU of a phage type 4 Salmonella Enteritidis strain. Eggs were collected 5 to 23 days postinoculation, and the yolk and albumen of each egg were cultured separately to detect Salmonella Enteritidis contamination. Larger oral doses of Salmonella Enteritidis administered to hens were associated with significant increases in the frequencies of both yolk and albumen contamination. Moreover, Salmonella Enteritidis was found in the albumen of a far-higher proportion of contaminated eggs from hens given the largest dose than from the other two groups. Salmonella Enteritidis contamination was detected in 0.7% of yolk and 0.2% of albumen samples after inoculation of hens with 10(4) CFU, 4.0% of yolk and 1.7% of albumen samples after inoculation with 10(6) CFU, and 6.5% of yolk and 10.8% of albumen samples after inoculation with 10(8) CFU. These results demonstrate that oral-exposure doses of Salmonella Enteritidis for laying hens can significantly affect both the frequency and location of deposition of this pathogen inside eggs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard K Gast
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Egg Safety and Quality Research Unit, Russell Research Center, 950 College Station Road, Athens, Georgia 30605, USA.
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Van Immerseel F. Stress-induced survival strategies enable Salmonella Enteritidis to persistently colonize the chicken oviduct tissue and cope with antimicrobial factors in egg white: A hypothesis to explain a pandemic. Gut Pathog 2010; 2:23. [PMID: 21172004 PMCID: PMC3016255 DOI: 10.1186/1757-4749-2-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2010] [Accepted: 12/20/2010] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Egg-associated transmission to humans seems to be characteristic of the Salmonella serotype Enteritidis, explaining why this particular serotype has caused a worldwide pandemic since the mid '80s. Salmonella Enteritidis is much more capable to persistently colonize the laying hen reproductive tract and to survive in the hostile egg white, as compared to other serotypes. Presentation of the hypothesis It is hypothesized that stress-induced survival mechanisms enable the serotype Enteritidis to persistently colonize the oviduct without causing damage and excessive inflammation, and to cope with the antimicrobial compounds present in egg white. Testing the hypothesis To test the hypothesis first of all Salmonella Enteritidis genes that are essential for colonization of the oviduct and survival in eggs need to be identified. Comparative genomics tools should be used to identify genes or pathogenicity islands that are present in Salmonella Enteritidis and not in the multiple non egg-contaminating serotypes. High-throughput signature-tagged-mutagenesis approaches, coupled to micro-array detection of the genes that lead to an attenuated phenotype when mutated is proposed as an ideal tool to identify genes involved in oviduct colonization and egg white survival. Identifying the stressors and antibacterial molecules in the oviduct and in the egg white that limit colonization or survival of non-Enteritidis serotypes is a second important objective that can theoretically be achieved using screenings of expressed oviduct cDNA libraries for their antibacterial activity against strains from multiple serotypes. Finally, the effect of contact with these stressors in the oviduct or egg white on Salmonella gene expression will need to be analyzed, in order to clarify whether serotype Enteritidis-specific regulation of certain stress-survival pathways are either or not present. Implications of the hypothesis Knowledge on the pathogenesis of egg infections would furthermore give insights that might be extrapolated to other biological interactions, in which a highly specialized bacterial pathogen resists the host response in a specific biological niche. In addition, this info can be of value in developing early warning criteria to identify emerging egg-associated Salmonella strains and in developing safe live attenuated vaccine strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filip Van Immerseel
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Research Group Veterinary Public Health and Zoonoses, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
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